Figure 1 Women at work today in a range of occupations
Figure 11.2 How have these changes affected the division of labour within families?What have been the implications of these changes for a woman's role as housewife? Has she continued to do most of the work in the home or has it become more shared between men and women?For a while, particularly during the 1960s and 1970s, there seemed to be some indications that families might be becoming more egalitarian, i.e. that as more women worked outside the home, men would increase the amount of domestic work they undertook. A particularly influential study at that time was Young and Willmott's The Symmetrical Family (1973) in which they argued that the middle classes in particular were leading a trend towards a more egalitarian ‘symmetrical’ marriage relationship in which husband and wife shared tasks more equally.However, evidence also emerged during the latter part of the twentieth century that perhaps changes had not been as great as was originally assumed. According to one review of the evidence ‘none of the data seems to warrant any suggestion that the traditional female responsibility for household work has been substantially eroded, or that male participation has ‘significantly increased’ (Morris, 1990 p. 120). Women it seemed had a dual role, juggling paid employment and work in the home.So studies from the second half of the twentieth century told two different stories. On the one hand housework was becoming more equally shared. On the other, women still did most of it whilst at the same time working outside the home. Almost certainly some of you reading this will want to support the argument that change has occurred. Maybe it is part of your own experience than men today do a lot more in the home that their fathers’ generation did.Equally, some of you may feel that the argument that there has been no change better reflects your own experiences.
Figure 3 The division of housework today presented as bullet points
Figure 3
Figure 4 The division of housework today presented as a diagram
Figure 4So according to this research, women's continued high levels of employment outside the home have not been accompanied by dramatic changes in who does the work in the home although there have been some changes. However there are differences between families according to age (though discussion of this factor is not developed in the extract from Ivor Gaber), the amount of work that women do outside the home, and the beliefs (gender ideologies) of the couple. It is to this third factor that we want to turn finally in looking at the division of labour today.ReflectionWe cannot give a short simple answer to the question of who does the work in the home. However we know that changes, varying in extent, speed and direction, have occurred to women's role during the past two hundred or so years. We know that they are at least partly explained by the connectedness between women's role outside the home and their role in the home. We also know from the Ramos research that families differ in how work is divided. This diversity, which is explored further in the rest of this course, makes it even more difficult to produce one simple answer to the question in this section's title.1.3 How work is divided in different familiesThe extract stated that the way the chores are divided depends partly on ‘the beliefs the partners have about the role each should play’ that is, what we call their ‘gender ideology’. In other words people have ideas about what is the appropriate and ‘normal’ way to divide work between men and women. These ideas may be traditional; which in this case means believing that men and women have different roles to play and that it is women's role to take most responsibility for what happens in the home. Or they may be egalitarian; which in this case means believing that men and women should share the work in the home and that there should be equal opportunities to enter and succeed in the paid work force. Whichever are held, these ideas or beliefs can be very strongly rooted. They may be ideas about gender which people grew up with, which are supported by families close to them, or ideas they share with work mates or colleagues. They are part of a way of looking at and making sense of the world and, most importantly, they result in quite significant differences in how families divide up the work. We cannot ignore the inequalities that may be a product of the traditional ideologies, but being aware of gender ideologies does help us to understand why change might be slow moving or resistant to change.Gender refers to the expectations of a particular society or group in relation to the attributes and behaviour of men and women.Gender is different from sex, which refers to the biological differences between men and women.Recognising that people from different groups in society (whether these relate to age, social background, ethnicity, occupation or even geographical location) may have different ways of thinking and consequently behave differently, takes us to one of the most important social science concepts of all; that of culture. But first there is another reason for being careful about making generalisations about family life and the way work is divided.2 Changing family forms2.1 The diversity of family life todayBefore concluding our discussion of the division of labour it is very important that we recognise that families today come in many different forms and shapes. During the past fifty years, in particular, family life has become increasingly diverse. Today family life may mean a household consisting of a married mother, father and their children; or unmarried mother and father with their children. It may mean a family with just one parent, a family made up of a couple and their children from previous relationships, or a same sex couple with children (either from a previous relationship, adopted or by sperm donation). This is a significant change from the 1950s when the majority (though not all) families consisted of two parents and their offspring. Not everyone welcomes this change. If you continue with further studies in the social sciences you will become aware of the range of views that exist on family life. But here we would like you to think of this diversity in terms of the greater choice it gives people; and most importantly the very positive consequences for those who have had unhappy experiences of the 1950s type of family life.
Figure 5 Twenty first century families: lesbian parents, a step family, older parents and a single father
Table 1Families in Great Britain with dependent children headed by lone parents
Percentages
1971
1981
1991
1999
2001
Lone mothers
Single
1
2
6
8
9
Widowed
2
2
1
1
1
Divorced
2
4
6
6
6
Separated
2
2
4
4
4
All lone mothers
7
11
18
20
20
Lone fathers
1
2
1
2
2
All lone parents
8
13
19
22
22
(Source: National Statistics, 2002, p. 48)
According to this table the percentage of families headed by lone mothers increased from 7 per cent in 1971 to 20 per cent in 2001. Which category of lone mothers increased the most?In 2001 the percentage of families headed by lone mothers was 20 per cent. What was the percentage of families headed by lone fathers?In 1971 8 per cent of families were headed by lone parents. What was the percentage in 2001?Note: if you have not come across percentage (written as %) before, it is useful to think of it as ‘out of a hundred’.Here are the answers:Single mothers increased the most, from 1 per cent to 9 per cent (that is a change from one in every hundred families in 1971 to nine in every hundred families in 2001).2 per cent of families were headed by lone fathers.The percentage in 2001 was 22 per cent.So, to summarise, this table provides evidence of an increase in lone parents generally but an increase in single mothers particularly.Some of you may have found this activity easy. But for some of you this may have been the first time you had to read numerical data in this way. It gets much easier with practice. So don't worry if you did not get the right answers this time. But go over the correct answers now to make sure you know how they were arrived at. The key to success is to take it slowly.Activity 3Now look at Figure 6 a graph showing births outside marriage as a percentage of all live births. Again, take each question slowly.
Figure 6 Births outside marriage as a percentage of all live births in Great Britain
Figure 6(Source: National Statistics, 2002, p. 47)In 1975 just fewer than 10 per cent of all live births were outside marriage. What was the approximate percentage in 2000? (We have asked for the approximate number because although a graph like this gives us a good picture of the changes it is difficult to be precise.)In 1975, of the 10 per cent of births outside marriage, half were jointly registered (i.e. by both parents) and half were solely registered. Which has increased more since then, jointly or singly registered births?Here are the answers:The percentage in 2000 was approximately 40.The greatest increase was in jointly registered births.So, to summarise, this graph provides evidence of the increasing proportion of births to couples rather than to single mothers; but to couples who are not married.Again many of you will have found this quite an unfamiliar exercise. If you did not get the right answers go back to the graph and follow each curve from the bottom left hand corner.Activity 4Finally look at Figure 7 which shows numbers of marriages, divorces and remarriages (in thousands) between 1961 and 1999. This is another way of presenting data in the form of a graph. Answer the questions below.
Figure 7 Marriages and divorces in the UK 1961–1999