E236_2 Training for speed and power in sport and fitness About this free course This free course is an adapted extract from the Open University course E236 Applying sport and exercise sciences to coaching: www.open.ac.uk/courses/modules/e236. This version of the content may include video, images and interactive content that may not be optimised for your device. You can experience this free course as it was originally designed on OpenLearn, the home of free learning from The Open University – www.open.edu/openlearn/health-sports-psychology/training-speed-and-power-sport-and-fitness/content-section-0 There you’ll also be able to track your progress via your activity record, which you can use to demonstrate your learning.

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Now answer the following questions and write them in the box below. What is speed? What is power? What sports/activities require speed and power? Speed can be defined as a measure of the rate of motion and is therefore the distance travelled divided by the time taken to travel that distance (Murray and Kenny, 2016). Power is a measure of the rate at which energy is transferred – that is, power is force multiplied by distance divided by time (Murray and Kenny, 2016). So in simple terms speed refers to how quickly we move (for example, from the start to the end of a 100m race), while power is a combination of strength and speed, and refers to the ability to execute strong explosive movement at a fast pace (for instance, as with exploding from the starting blocks). Speed and power are closely related, and both are often important in specific sports or activities. A needs analysis of your sport or activity will indicate how important speed and power are to you. There is a wide range of sports and activities in which speed and power are important – in some sports such as sprinting or power-lifting, achieving speed and power are the main objectives, whereas in other sports such as rugby or football they are just one aspect of the sport. Speed or power may be required in various parts of the body – for example, in cricket the arm of a bowler needs to be able to travel at speed to deliver the ball, but the legs and the rest of the body also need to move fast in order to enable this. Hence training to develop speed and power needs to consider the movements involved in partaking in the sport. You will now consider this: the mechanics and physiology of speed.

Figure 1 An image of a female disabled sprinter An image of a female disabled sprinter

In simple terms, speed refers to how quickly an athlete moves. This may relate to movement of the entire body itself from start to finish over a specific distance (as in a 50m sprint swim) or to how quickly an athlete can move a body part (as in throwing a rapid punch in boxing). Speed is also related to the component of agility, when one quickly changes direction (as in making a rapid turn to avoid an opponent in hockey). In the next section you will further your understanding of speed by exploring biomechanical principles.

In this section you will investigate the biomechanics of speed in order to buttress your understanding of speed and how to develop it. Activity 2 Speed mechanics Allow 40 minutes for this activity Watch Video 2 and have a look at the glossary below in Box 1. Once you’ve watched Video 2 and completed the reading, fill in the gaps in the statements below which describe how these terms can be applied to a sprinter at the start of a race. Video 2 The science of sprinting [MUSIC PLAYING] NARRATOR We are appealing to your inner geek, as we get out the blocks with the precision science of track sprinting. DR. NEAL SMITH The sprint start is all about generating power, so we need to be very quick to leave the blocks. So you'll notice that sprinters will have very short, staccato-like steps at the beginning of a race to try and generate as much force, and the friction that they interact on the ground, as the spikes touch the track surface, to try and propel forwards. When we multiply force by the amount of time that we spend applying that force, we get something that's called impulse. The greater impulse that we can then generate will mean that we can help to propel our centre of gravity forwards out the blocks as quickly as we possibly can. From a biomechanics point of view, we need pieces of kit that will help us slow down that technique so we can understand what is happening at every foot contact. We'll use things like three-dimensional motion capture, to help us monitor the movements of the arms and the legs. And we'll also use things like force transducers to try and help us understand the forces under the feet that are generated during the sprint start. DR. SCOTT WEISS Not only is it important getting out of the blocks, but you'll see them always keeping their head down to maintain peak velocity. Once peak velocity is hit, you start to see the gaze, and the eyes go up towards the finish line. And that's where they try to maintain that speed.

Box 1 Glossary of speed terms Velocity: How fast an object (or person) is moving and its direction Speed: The rate at which an object (or person) covers a distance Impulse: The product of the force generated, and the time required to produce the force (force x time) Force: The product of mass and acceleration or a push/pull exerted on one object by another Acceleration: The rate at which an object’s velocity changes over time Use the drop-down menus to select the correct missing word. Having explored the biomechanical principles of speed you will now look at the physiology of speed and how this relates to speed training.

Figure 2 An image of a hand on the starting line with power in nerves and veins An image of a hand on the starting line with power in nerves and veins

An athlete’s neuromuscular system is vital to sprint performance because it can influence the rate and strength of muscle contraction. Having a greater understanding of the neuromuscular system is important to identify its contribution to speed and its opportunity for development. An overview of the neuromuscular contributions to speed are shown in Table 1. Table 1 Neurophysiological basis for speed

System/Section	Key learning points and application to a sprinter
Muscular system	The composition of muscle fibre types (i.e. amount of Type 1, IIa and IIx fibres) can dictate speed performance (Jeffreys, 2013). Those with a relatively higher proportion of fast-twitch fibres (Type IIa and Type IIx) have a greater capacity to produce force and develop speed. While there is a major genetic component underlying whatever proportion of fast- and slow-twitch muscle fibres particular individuals may have, training may also have an effect. For example, endurance training may lead to Type IIa fibres taking on the aerobic characteristics of Type I fibres, reducing the force capacity of the muscle and the ability to generate speed (Jeffreys, 2013).
Nervous system	Sprint training will lead to several adaptations in her neuromuscular system, such as an enhanced neural drive (rate and amplitude of impulses being sent from the nervous system to her muscles).Increases in neural drive may contribute to increasing a sprinter’s rate of force development and impulse generation, which as you saw in Activity 2 will improve sprinting performance.

This again links back to the principle of specificity: for a training programme to develop speed it needs to include exercises and/or activities that are performed at speed. To develop the neuromuscular system’s contribution to power, heavy weight training and plyometric exercise can be used to develop the capacity of fast twitch muscle fibres and enhance neural drive. Now that you’ve considered how the physiology of speed may influence training methods used to develop speed, you can move on to look at the application of speed training methods by the strength and conditioning coach.

Figure 3 An image of a man sprinting pulling a sled behind him on the running track An image of a man sprinting pulling a sled behind him on the running track

After gaining an understanding of the biomechanics and physiology of speed, you can now turn your attention to the training methods that may be used to develop speed. Plisk (2008) identifies three methods for developing speed: primary, secondary and tertiary methods. Primary methods focus on executing sound movement technique in a specific task. Initially primary methods of developing speed tend to be performed at speeds slower than those used in the real situation to ensure that the mechanics of the movement are correct, progressing to full speed as the individual develops their skills (for example, with a high knee drill). Secondary methods involve developing specialist skills in modified conditions and include sprint resistance and sprint assistance methods.Speed resistance methods aim to provide resistance without interrupting movement mechanics. This resistance may come from physical resistance (as with running while pulling a sled or with a parachute).Speed assistance methods aim to facilitate movements at a faster speed than normal (‘over-speed’) and include downhill running and running while being towed. Tertiary methods involve developing general skills and abilities and include the development of mobility (as with a dynamic lunge with rotation), strength (as with resistance training) and speed-endurance (as with interval training).

In Activity 3 you will watch a short video of speed training in action which will help you consider how a strength and conditioning coach could use different methods with athletes. Activity 3 Speed training in action Allow 30 minutes for this activity Watch Video 3, in which strength and conditioning coach Fiona Scott at the University of Hertfordshire, UK, leads a speed training session for some university athletes and students. Video 3 Fiona Scott: speed training [MUSIC PLAYING] FIONA SCOTT: I'm Fiona Scott. I work at the University of Hertfordshire in a S&C department within that called Performance Herts. We deliver to university athletes, as well as external clubs such as Saracens Mavericks, Arsenal Ladies, Women's FC. And then on top of that, we've done workshops in S&C areas and fields, and also lecture. Today we're in the cricket hall, and we are going to be running an acceleration, speed, agility, and plyometric sessions. We often shorten that to an ASAP session. JACK TYLER: We're going to do a few sets of these. Just take your time to find your co-ordination. FIONA SCOTT: Coaches Jack and Louis are going to be taking through a mixture of students from the performance sports at the university, from American football, women's football, netball. And then on top of that, we've also got some sport and exercise science students, and they're working towards their S&C module. JACK TYLER: So with this one, we're just looking to float a bit more in the air. FIONA SCOTT: Information I gather before planning my speed sessions-- it would very much be who the athletes are, who I'm going to be training. If I don't know too much about the sport, I would always do a needs analysis of it to see what the sport entails. The needs analysis generally encompasses a biomechanical, a physiological, and an injury analysis. JACK TYLER: Push away, push, push. FIONA SCOTT: And that gives us a very good understanding of the sporting elements that they require. JACK TYLER: Tap the ground. Slow it down. FIONA SCOTT: From just watching the sport, you can get an idea of what movements they need, whether they need to move more horizontally or propel themselves more vertically in say, basketball and netball. And again, that will help give you a priority in the session. JACK TYLER: We're going to progress on our plyometrics. So we've got two hurdle heights. You can pick which one. FIONA SCOTT: You'd ask the athletes. You try and get a bit of an understanding of their training age, so not just their training age within their sport, but also their training age within strength and conditioning, which can often be quite low. Nice, keep that nice. Injury history, and when we're doing a session where we need people to be fully fit, plyometrics, for example, you need to be injury-free, and you definitely need a very good underlying strength history and remit. With all strength and conditioning training, but especially speed, we see a lot of athletes. And some of the drills are very basic. But you do need to regress and progress drills based on the athletes in front of you, and what they can cope with and what they can manage. JACK TYLER: Keeping your spacing and imagining you're in a tunnel, you're just going to push and hold. FIONA SCOTT: There's a multitude of ways to progress drills. One would be by increasing volume, so the demand that the athlete's putting on their body. Another way is by loading, so not necessarily with external weight or anything, but you might resist movement, which takes us into secondary speed drills. Or you might just-- if you're doing plyometrics-- go from a higher height, or increase the forces the athlete's exposed to with each drill. And I guess the final way would be also frequency as well. Most athletes, when they're starting, once a week would probably be enough to get an improvement. But as athletes get more advanced, they'll have to train more frequently. So it'd be sort of more like two, maybe three times a week. But realistically, with their sporting demands, and trying to fit in everything into a week, probably two. Make sure you're strong, push into the wall. One of the hardest things for us as their S&C coaching team is to actually try and periodise their week, and work out when best to fit in their training. JACK TYLER: We're going to combine our acceleration and change of direction work. Tom can weave to get away from Louis. [LAUGHTER] FIONA SCOTT: Sessions-wise, they're quite short. They don't need to be long. And that's because you really want to prioritise quality over quantity. And it can take anywhere from 10 minutes to 30 minutes. If you then add in the other aspects like the plyometric training, like the agility and change directional training, the maximum a session would be is probably an hour. Everything you train wants to be maximum intensity and with good form. So that's what sort of help dictates your rest periods. And you let them rest plenty so that they're ready to go again. And if form dissipates, then that might be the end of a session, or you might just give them longer. STUDENT: Today, we were just going through some speed and acceleration stuff. It's beneficial to netball, as that is majority of what we do throughout the game. STUDENT: We've just come to the end of our season now, so this is like prep, really, for next season already. [LAUGHTER] FIONA SCOTT: A good outcome we're looking for is that a coach could see the transference to their sport. Nothing would be better to us than hearing a coach come over to us and saying, all that work you're doing in your speed drills is really starting to transfer over and make an improvement to their sporting performance. We only objectively know that by doing fitness tests. But it is always nice to hear the subjective reports.

Now answer the following questions: What information does the strength and conditioning coach gather to plan speed training sessions? What speed training activities are being performed by the athletes and to what extent are they specific to the demands of the sport? How does the strength and conditioning coach progress speed training exercises? Before planning speed sessions, Fiona the strength and conditioning coach will talk to the athlete to confirm their training age and injury history. Then Fiona will perform a needs analysis of both the athlete and their sport to determine the biomechanical, physiological and injury prevention needs. In Video 3 you see the coach deliver speed drills (primary method), resistance-band acceleration (secondary method), and plyometric training. Speed resistance and assistance training methods could be useful to any individual who needed to develop speed and therefore could be utilised by individuals from a range of sports. As always, the training principle of specificity should be considered when identifying appropriate speed training exercises. The examples in Video 3 are all running-based and would therefore be appropriate for individuals who wish to develop their running speed (such as sprinters, footballer players, rugby players). Alternative exercises would be more appropriate for those who needed to develop speed in other movements (such as throwers, bowlers, swimmers). For example, L’ubos et al. (2018) found that swimming training with a parachute (speed resistance) improved swimming speed. Speed training can be progressed by increasing the volume (the demand that the athlete places on their body), load (resist movement or increase height in plyometrics) or frequency (number of sessions per week) of training. Speed resistance training, as with the resistance-band sprinting you saw in Video 3, is hypothesised to have various benefits (for example, improving acceleration), but if the loads are not appropriate for the individual that may overly affect the mechanics of running (DeWeese and Nimphuis, 2016). Considerable research has been done on speed resistance training. For example, in a review of the literature Alcaraz et al. (2018) concluded that resisted sled training is an effective method of improving sprint performance. However, there is limited research evidence to support the use of speed assistance and it can lead to negative effects such as an increase in braking forces (DeWeese and Nimphuis, 2016). The strength and conditioning coach should consider the robustness of research evidence supporting whatever methods they use with their athletes. Having looked at speed training, you will now consider power.

Figure 4 An image of males and females performing a range of power training exercises. An image of males and females performing a range of power training exercises.

Power is closely related to two components of fitness: strength and speed. Power is effectively the product of strength and speed (Faigenbaum, 2017) and is the ability to execute strong explosive movement at speed. As such, speed, strength and power are often jointly identified in needs analyses as key components of fitness in certain sports and/or activities (such as rugby, weightlifting, sprinting or hammer-throwing). In this section you will primarily be considering two power training methods (plyometric training and weight training) and the science behind them. Plyometric training refers to explosive jump training that involves fast, powerful movements that are preceded by a stretch or countermovement (Potach and Chu, 2016). Before you consider these power training methods in detail you need to look at the physiology and biomechanics involved.

Figure 5 An image of a person bounding up steps An image of a person bounding up steps

When a muscle is stretched rapidly, the neuromuscular system responds by initiating a concentric muscle contraction to prevent the muscle from being stretched too far and becoming damaged. This is known as the stretch-reflex system. In plyometrics, this means that if a rapid eccentric loading phase is performed before a concentric contraction, a greater and more powerful concentric muscle action will occur. This ‘pre-stretch’ action is known as the stretch shortening cycle and is explained further in Activity 4. Activity 4 Plyometric mechanics and physiology Allow 40 minutes for this activity Watch Video 4, on the stretch-shortening cycle, at the link below. Focus on the section between the start and 02:55. Once you’ve watched Video 4, do the related tasks below. Video 4: The stretch-shortening cycle 1. Use the drop-down menus to select the correct missing word. 2. Put the three phases of the stretch-shortening cycle in the order they are performed. Eccentric First Amortisation Second Concentric Third Now that you have an understanding of how plyometric training works, in the next section you will investigate some examples of plyometric training.

Figure 6 An image of a person jumping onto a wooden box An image of a person jumping onto a wooden box

Various studies have found plyometric training to be effective in developing power and improving performance (Stojanović et al., 2017). A wide range of plyometric exercises may be employed to develop power. Potach and Chu (2016) divide these into lower-body, upper-body and trunk exercises. The choice of exercises should depend on various factors, including the unique requirements of the individual (needs analysis), their age and fitness levels. You will consider some examples of plyometric exercises in Activity 5. Activity 5 Plyometric training in action Allow 30 minutes for this activity Watch Video 5, in which a range of plyometric exercises are demonstrated. Then select one exercise that you think would be most appropriate to use with a 200m sprinter and explain why you selected this particular exercise. Video 5 Plyometric exercises [MUSIC PLAYING] CORI LEFKOWITH Hey, guys. It's Cori from Redefining Strength. And today we're going to go over some plyometric exercises. Plyometric movements are explosive, powerful movements that you do for short intervals of work, and then you rest after. If you see one we missed or if there's one you really love, comment below, and make sure to subscribe. We're posting new videos each week. [MUSIC PLAYING]

You probably chose your exercise by applying the principle of specificity. In other words, you probably tried to select an exercise that would be relevant to a 200m sprinter. Any of the lower body plyometric exercises with similar movement patterns (i.e. in a sagittal plane), or that work the muscle groups that a 200m sprinter needs to develop (i.e. quadriceps, hamstrings, gastrocnemius) in order to improve her sprint performance would be beneficial. Plyometric training provides an effective way to develop functional power and enables the strength and conditioning coach to prescribe functional exercises for the athlete which are specific to that athlete’s sport. In the early training of plyometrics, developing proper technique and balance must be prioritised to minimise the injury risk of the high intensity exercise. In the next section you will look at another method of developing power: weight training.

Figure 7 Image of men and women performing a snatch lift with a barbell in a gym Image of men and women performing a snatch lift with a barbell in a gym

In strength and conditioning, it is important to prescribe the correct intensity/load (i.e. % of repetition maximum (RM), number of repetitions, sets and amount of rest in relation to the training goal to gain maximum results). Table 2 shows that for power, high load and relatively few repetitions are recommended. Table 2 Training principle recommendations for training goalsSource: Sheppard and Triplett (2016)

Training goal		Load(% of 1RM)	Repetitions	Sets	Rest
Maximal strength		≥ 85	≤ 6	2–6	2–5 minutes
Power	single-effort event	80–90	1–2	3–5	2–5 minutes
	multiple-effort event	75–85	3–5
Hypertrophy		67–85	6–12	3–6	30–90 seconds
Muscular endurance		≤ 67	≥ 12	2–3	≤ 30 seconds

A single-effort event is where one maximum-power effort is required (i.e. shot put, high jump, power lifting). A multiple-effort event is one where repeated maximum-power efforts are required (i.e. rugby, volleyball). For power, the type of exercise is also important to achieve training goals. In this section you will consider some examples of weight-lifting exercises that are suitable for developing power. As you would expect, given the definition of power, such exercises involve fast, explosive movements; you will investigate some of these in Activity 6. Activity 6 Being explosive in the gym Allow 10 minutes for this activity Watch Video 6 in which you will see several weight-lifting exercises designed to develop power. Which exercises would be most appropriate for developing explosive leg power? Watch from 02:32 (‘Once you have a basis of strength …’) to 03:35 (‘… high-velocity power output movement’). Video 6: Weight-lifting to develop power In Video 6 you see a variety of exercises being performed, including power cleans, power snatch and squat jumps. What all these exercises have in common is that they’re performed with fast, explosive or jumping movements – so they differ from more traditional weightlifting exercises which tend to be performed more slowly. Explosive exercises require relatively more technical input from a qualified strength and conditioning coach. Weight training exercises to develop power include Olympic lifts (such as snatch, clean and jerk). Squat jumps, the snatch and the clean are very effective at developing explosive leg power for sprinting.

You can now take part in a quiz which is an opportunity to check your learning of some of the main points addressed in this course. End-of-course quiz Which two components of fitness create power? a) Muscular endurance x strength b) Cardiovascular endurance x speed c) Strength x speed d) Anaerobic capacity x agility What are the two main training methods for developing power? a) Plyometric and balance training b) Plyometric and weight training c) Plyometric and endurance training d) Plyometric and core training In the stretch shortening cycle, which type of muscle contraction is required initially to create elastic energy? a) Concentric contraction b) Eccentric contraction c) Isometric contraction d) Isokinetic contraction Which of the following is a speed resistance method of speed training? a) Running downhill b) Running while being towed c) Running with a parachute d) All of the above What are the optimal training load, repetitions, sets and rest periods to develop power? a) ≥85% of 1RM, 1–6 repetitions, 2–6 sets, 2–5 minutes rest between sets b) 75–90% of 1RM, 1–5 repetitions, 3–5 sets, 2–5 minutes rest between sets c) 67–85% of 1RM, 6–12 repetitions, 3–6 sets, 30–90 seconds rest between sets d) ≤67% of 1RM, ≥12 repetitions, 2–3 sets, ≤30 seconds rest between sets In this course you’ve investigated speed and power in relation to sport and fitness. The key learning points from the course are that: speed and power are key components of fitness in a range of sports and activities in simple terms, speed relates to how quickly we move, while power is a combination of strength and speed in order to design effective training programmes, you need to understand the mechanics and physiology of speed and power speed training methods include speed resistance methods (as with sled-pulling) and speed assistance methods (as with downhill running) power training methods include plyometrics and Olympic lifts. This OpenLearn course is an adapted extract from the Open University course E236 Applying sport and exercise sciences to coaching. You might interested in another OpenLearn course taken from this Open University course: Training for endurance in sport and fitness. Alcaraz, P.E. et al. (2018) ‘The effectiveness of resisted sled training (RST) for sprint performance: a systematic review and meta-analysis’, Sports Medicine, 48(9), pp. 2143–65. DeWeese, B.H. and Nimphuis, S. (2016) ‘Program design and technique for speed and agility training’, in Haff, G. G. and Triplett, N. T. (eds) Essentials of strength training and conditioning (4th edn). Leeds: Human Kinetics, pp. 521–57. Faigenbaum, A. (2017) ‘Exercise prescription for muscular fitness’, in Howley, E. T. (ed.) Fitness professional’s handbook (7th edn). Leeds: Human Kinetics, pp. 257–89. Jeffreys, I. (2013) ‘The nature of speed’, in Jeffreys, I. (ed.) Developing speed. Leeds: Human Kinetics, pp. 1–18. Ľubos, G. et al. (2018) ‘Effect of resistance training with parachutes on power and speed development in a group of competitive swimmers’, Journal of Physical Education and Sport, 18(2), pp. 787–91. Murray, B. and Kenny, W.L. (2016) Practical guide to exercise physiology. Leeds: Human Kinetics. Plisk, S. S. (2008) ‘Speed, agility, and speed-endurance development’, in Baechle, T. R. and Earle, R.W. (eds) Essentials of strength training and conditioning (3rd edn). Leeds: Human Kinetics, pp. 457–85. Potach, D.H. and Chu, D.A. (2016) ‘Program design and technique for plyometric training’, in Haff, G.G. and Triplett, N.T. (eds) Essentials of strength training and conditioning (4th edn). Leeds: Human Kinetics, pp. 471–520. Sheppard, J.M. and Triplett, N.T. (2016) ‘Program design for resistance training’ in Haff, G.G., and Triplett, N.T. (eds) Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning, 4th edn. Champaign, Il: Human Kinetics, pp. 439-470. Stojanović, E. et al. (2017) ‘Effect of plyometric training on vertical jump performance in female athletes: a systematic review and meta-analysis’, Sports Medicine, 47(5), pp. 975–86. This free course was written by Simon Penn, Caroline Heaney and Nigel Wright. Except for third party materials and otherwise stated (see terms and conditions), this content is made available under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 Licence. The material acknowledged below is Proprietary and used under licence (not subject to Creative Commons Licence). Grateful acknowledgement is made to the following sources for permission to reproduce material in this free course: Course image: © Coolakov_com/Shutterstock Figure 1: © sportpoint/Shutterstock Figure 2: © Rocksweeper/Shuttersock Figure 3: © WoodysPhotos/Shutterstock Figure 4: © Syda Productions/Shutterstock Figure 5: © Jon Osumi/Shutterstock Figure 6: © takoburito/iStock Figure 7: © Flamingo Images/Shutterstock Video 1: ‘Women 100m wheelchair – 2017 SUMMERofATHS Grand Prix’, used with permission of Athletics Australia Video 2: ‘Sprinting – science behind the sport’, used with permission from Gillette North America Video 3: ‘Catch the light’, Audio Network Limited Video 5: ‘Plyometric exercises – 23 Plyo Variations’, courtesy of Cori Lefkowith, RedefiningStrength.com Every effort has been made to contact copyright owners. If any have been inadvertently overlooked, the publishers will be pleased to make the necessary arrangements at the first opportunity. 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