TAM_1 Beginners’ Tamil: a taster course About this free course This free course is an adapted extract from the Open University course . This version of the content may include video, images and interactive content that may not be optimised for your device. You can experience this free course as it was originally designed on OpenLearn, the home of free learning from The Open University – Beginners’ Tamil: a taster course There you’ll also be able to track your progress via your activity record, which you can use to demonstrate your learning.

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(.epub) This free course, Beginners’ Tamil: a taster course, introduces Tamil society and culture, Tamil scripts, and common phrases that will allow you to start having simple conversations in the language. You will also have plenty of opportunities to practise Tamil throughout the course with activities and quizzes. After studying this course, you should be able to: demonstrate an awareness of the Tamil alphabet and sound, and a basic understanding of the Tamil language count up to 10 in Tamil name some of the traditional musical instruments used by Tamils name some of the fruits grown in Tamil Nadu greet a person in Tamil, and say simple phrases related to numbers, musical instruments and fruits with confidence. Tamil is one of the oldest languages in the world, and can be dated back to around 400 BC (Violatti, 2016). It is spoken by more than 85 million people (Ethnologue, 2021), most of them in Tamil Nadu (meaning ‘The Tamil Nation’), a state in southern India. Tamil is a language rich in literature, philosophy and music, and thus of interest to many people. It is one of the 22 official languages of India.

Figure 1 Tamil Brahmi inscription in Mangulam, Madurai district, Tamil Nadu, dated to c. 400 BC to c. 200 AD (Violatti, 2016) A model of the Mangulam Tamil Brahmi inscription A model of the Mangulam Tamil Brahmi inscription at Dakshin Chithra, Chennai.

Figure 2 A map of India, with Tamil Nadu in red Map of India, with Tamil Nadu highlighted A map of India. A small section in the bottom right (south east of India) is coloured red to mark out Tamil Nadu.

Tamil is the official language of Tamil Nadu and the Indian territory of Puducherry, and is one of the official languages in Sri Lanka and Singapore. As well as in Singapore and Sri Lanka where Tamil is particularly prominent in Jaffna in the north of the island, and in the Vanni in the east, there are also large numbers of Tamil speakers in the diaspora in Malaysia, Mauritius, Fiji, South Africa, the United Kingdom, Canada, France, Australia and the USA. Significant Tamil minorities in the Indian states of Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Telangana, and in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, also speak the language. Tamil is also used as a language of education in Sri Lanka, Malaysia and Singapore. In England and Wales in 2011, the Tamil speaking-population was said to be 100 689 (Gopal and Matras, 2013) while Dissanayake some years earlier (2008) quoted a community estimate of 150 000. The majority of Tamils are Hindus, with a smaller proportion being Christians and Muslims. Tamils tend to live in extended families, with the elderly often living with their adult children.

Figure 3 Three generations of a Tamil family – the women are wearing saris (saylay, in Tamil), while the patriarch is wearing a vertti, and the young girl in the front is wearing a pavaadai. A tamil family A photo of eleven members of a Tamil family from three generations sat on three rows of steps. The women are wearing saris (saylay, in Tamil), while the patriarch is wearing a vertti, and the young girl in the front is wearing a pavaadai.

Activity 1 True or false. Tamil is an official language only in India. True False False. As well as in India, Tamil is also an official language in Sri Lanka and Singapore. True or false. Tamil is an ancient language. True False True. Tamil is an ancient language, dating back to around 400 BC. True or false. The majority of Tamils are Buddhists. True False False. The majority of Tamils are Hindu. The current Tamil script consists of 12 vowels (Table 1), 18 consonants (Table 2) and one special character, the āytam. The vowels and consonants combine to form 216 compound characters (see Section 2.1 for examples), giving a total of 247 characters. There are also Grantha letters originating from the 4th century, which are used with Sanskrit words, usually in religious contexts. All consonants have an inherent vowel a, as with other Indic scripts. This inherent vowel is removed by adding a tittle called a pulli, to the consonantal sign. For example, ன  is ṉa (with the inherent a) and ன் is ṉ (without a vowel). The direction of writing is from left to right, in horizontal lines. The alphabet was originally written on palm fronds. As a result, the letters are made up mainly of curved strokes which would not have ripped the fronds. Table 1 The 12 Tamil vowels

அ	a	எ	e
ஆ	aa	ஏ	ee
இ	i	ஐ	ai
ஈ	ii	ஒ	o
உ	u	ஓ	oo
ஊ	uu	ஔ	au

Table 2 The 18 Tamil consonants, with the Grantha letters

க்k[k], [ɡ], [x], [ɣ], [ɦ]	ங்ṅ[ŋ]	ச்c[t͡ɕ], [d͡ʑ], [s], [ɕ]	ஞ்ñ[ɲ]	ட்ṭ[ʈ], [ɖ], [ɽ]	ண்ṇ[ɳ]
த்t[t̪], [d̪], [ð]	ந்n[n̪]	ப்p[p], [b], [β]	ம்m[m]	ய்y[j]	ர்r[ɾ]
ல்l[l]	வ்v[ʋ]	ழ்ḻ[ɻ]	ள்ḷ[ɭ]	ற்ṟ[r], [t], [d]	ன்ṉ[n]
Grantha letters
ஜja	ஷsha	ஸsa	ஹha	க்ஷkṣha

As mentioned in Section 2, the 12 vowels and 18 consonants in Tamil combine to form 216 compound characters. Listen to the two audios below for some examples and to hear how the sounds are pronounced. க,கா,கி,கீ,கு,கூ,கெ,கே,கை,கொ,கோ,கௌ ka, kaa, ki, kii, ku, kuu, ke, kaay, kai, ko, koo, kow ச,சா,சி,சீ,சு,சூ,செ,சே,சை,சொ,சோ,சௌ sa, saa, si, sii, su, suu, se, see, sai, so, soo, sow Now listen to the pronunciation of some of the new words you have been introduced to so far in this course. New vocabulary Tamil | தமிழ் Thamil Tamil Nadu | தமிழ் நாடு Thamil naadu Saylay | சேலை Saylay Vertti | வேட்டி Vertti Pavaadai | பாவாடை Pavaadai Activity 2

Unlike many other languages where there are multiple ways of greeting, in Tamil there is just one way of greeting others. To greet someone in person or whilst on the telephone or internet, you would say ‘Vanakkam’ and, if meeting in person, you would say this with palms pressed against each other facing the person. The word ‘Vanakkam’ implies respecting the person who comes in front of another person. This is just like the word ‘Namaste’ which is used in Northern India, Nepal, and in other regions where Hindi is spoken.

Figure 4 A couple saying ‘Vanakkam’ - (வணக்கம்). A couple greeting each other A cheerful South Indian couple greeting the camera with their hands pressed together and held up by the middle of their chests.

When saying goodbye to someone or leaving a gathering, Tamils will say, ‘Naan poyitu vaarein’ meaning ‘I’ll go and come back’. This is an indication of being in constant connection with people. Table 3 lists some useful phrases to use when greeting others and when saying goodbye. Read through the table and then listen to how each phrase is pronounced in the study note that follows. You will then have a chance to practise saying some of the expressions in Activity 3. Table 3 Greetings and essential expressions

Phrase in English	Phrase in Tamil	Pronunciation
Hello	வணக்கம்.	Vanakkam
Are you well?	நீங்கள் நலமாக இருக்கிறீர்களா?	Neenkal Nalamaka Erukkirirkala?
Yes, I’m fine	ஆம், நான் நலமாக இருக்கிறேன்.	Aam, naan nalamaka erukkiren
Thank you	நன்றி.	Nandhri
You are welcome	நீங்கள் வரவேற்கப்படுகிறீர்கள்.	Neenkal varavetkappadukireerkal
I’m sorry	நான் வருந்துகிறேன்
Forgive me (this is a more common way of apologising in day-to-day communications)	என்னை மன்னித்துக்கொள்ளுங்கள்.	Ennai manniththukollunkal
It doesn’t matter	அது ஒரு விடயம் இல்லை. (அது பறவாயில்லை)	Athu oru vidayam ellai (Athu paruvaayillai)
Goodbye	நான் போயிற்று வாறேன்.	Naan poyitu vaarein
I have to leave now, as I have to fetch my son from school	நான் எனது மகனை பள்ளியில் இருந்து எடுக்கவேண்டி இருப்பதால், நான் இப்பொழுது போகவேண்டி இருக்கிறது.	Naan enathu makanai palliyil erunthu edukka vendi eruppathaal naan eppoluthu pokavendi erukkirathu

New vocabulary/phrases Click on ‘Show transcript’ to reveal the transliteration (Tamil words using the English alphabet) of the vocabulary/phrases. Hello | வணக்கம். Vanakkam. Are you well? | நீங்கள் நலமாக இருக்கிறீர்களா? Neenkal Nalamaka Erukkirirkala? Yes, I’m fine | ஆம், நான் நலமாக இருக்கிறேன். Aam, naan nalamaka erukkiren. Thank you | நன்றி. Nandhri. You are welcome | நீங்கள் வரவேற்கப்படுகிறீர்கள். Neenkal varavetkappadukireerkal. Forgive me | என்னை மன்னித்துக்கொள்ளுங்கள் Ennai manniththukollunkal. It doesn’t matter | அது ஒரு விடயம் இல்லை. (அது பறவாயில்லை) Athu oru vidayam ellai. (Athu paruvaayillai) Goodbye (literally, ‘I will go and come back’) | நான் போயிற்று வாறேன். Naan poyitu vaarein. I have to leave now, as I have to fetch my son from school | நான் எனது மகனை பள்ளியில் இருந்து எடுக்கவேண்டி இருப்பதால், நான் இப்பொழுது போகவேண்டி இருக்கிறது. Naan enathu makanai palliyil erunthu edukka vendi eruppathaal naan eppoluthu pokavendi erukkirathu. Now have a go at speaking Tamil yourself. Activity 3 Record yourself saying the following statements and questions. Once you have recorded yourself, compare your recording with the model answer given. Tamils usually only have one name, but it can be quite long, for example, ‘Sivaloganathan’ (a male name, usually shortened, amongst family and friends, to ‘Siva’, or ‘Loga’, or ‘Nathan’). The first letter of the father’s name is then put as an initial. So, if the father of Sivaloganathan was named ‘Sriskantharajah’, Sivaloganathan would be known as ‘S. Sivaloganathan’. Female names tend to be shorter than male names, for example, Saraswathi or Lakshmi, the name of two Hindu Goddesses. If you imagine Saras (the shortened form of Saraswathi, but which would never be used in a religious setting) to be Siva’s brother, she would go as ‘S. Saraswathi’ when filling in any paperwork. In Tamil, as in many Asian languages, older people are addressed in respectful ways and suffixes for different categories of relatives are used. For example, your mother’s eldest brother would be your ‘Peria Maama’ (‘Peria’ means ‘most senior’; and ‘Maama’ means ‘paternal uncle’).

Figure 5 The Goddess Saraswathi, the provider of knowledge (left) and the Goddess Lakshmi, the provider of wealth (right) The Goddess Saraswathi and the Goddess Lakshmi Two posters side by side. The poster on the left is of the Goddess Saraswathi, the provider of knowledge. She is sat down on a white lotus flower playing the veena. A swan is also beside her. The poster on the right is of the Goddess Lakshmi, the provider of wealth. She is sat on a pink lotus flower with a bowl of coins in front of her. Coins are pouring out from one of her hands as well as a pot that she has on her lap. Two white elephants are either side of her.

Now study Table 4 alongside the audios that follow in the study note. These are some useful phrases to use when introducing yourself, such as saying where you live, where you were born and a bit about your family. Once you have listened to the phrases, have a go at Activity 4. Table 4 Introducing yourself

Phrase in English	Phrase in Tamil	Pronunciation
My name is Siva	எனது பெயர் சிவா.	Enathu peyar Siva
I live in Milton Keynes	நான் மில்டன் கீன்ஸ் இல் வாழ்கிறேன்.	Naan Milton Keensil Vaalkiren
I was born in Jaffna, Sri Lanka	நான் இலங்கையின் யாழ்ப்பாணத்தில் பிறந்தேன்.	Naan Elankaiyin Yalpanathil piranthen [Here, Sri Lanka (Elankai) comes before Jaffna (Yalpanam)]
I am married	நான் திருமணம் ஆனவர்.	Naan thirumanam aanavar
I am single	நான் திருமணம் ஆகாதவர்.	Naan thirumanam akathavar
I have two children, a boy, and a girl	எனக்கு இரண்டு குழந்தைகள், ஒரு ஆணும்,ஒரு பெண்ணும்.	Enakku erandu kulanthaikal, oru aanum, oru pennnum
My son’s name is …	எனது மகனின் பெயர் ...	Enathu makanin peyar …
My daughter’s name is …	எனது மகளின் பெயர் ...	Enathu makalin peyar …

New vocabulary/phrases My name is Siva | எனது பெயர் சிவா. Enathu peyar Siva. I live in Milton Keynes | நான் மில்டன் கீன்ஸ் இல் வாழ்கிறேன். Naan Milton Keensil Vaalkiren. I was born in Jaffna, Sri Lanka | நான் இலங்கையின் யாழ்ப்பாணத்தில் பிறந்தேன். Naan elankaiyin Yalpanathil piranthen. I am married | நான் திருமணம் ஆனவர். Naan thirumanam aanavar. I am single | நான் திருமணம் ஆகாதவர். Naan thirumanam akathavar. I have two children, a boy, and a girl | எனக்கு இரண்டு குழந்தைகள், ஒரு ஆணும்,ஒரு பெண்ணும். Enakku erandu kulanthaikal, oru aanum, oru pennnum. My son’s name is … | எனது மகனின் பெயர் ... Enathu makanin peyar … My daughter’s name is … | எனது மகளின் பெயர் ... Enathu makalin peyar … Activity 4 Select one. In what situation(s) would ‘Vanakkam’ be used? When speaking on the telephone When meeting someone face-to-face When communicating by electronic media All of the above. Unlike in many other societies, Tamils often just have one name. True False In this section you will learn how to count from zero to ten. Study Table 5 alongside the audio that follows to help you become familiar with numbers in Tamil. Table 5 Numbers in Tamil

Number	Tamil script	Pronunciation
0	பூச்சியம்	Poochchiam
1	ஒன்று	Ondru
2	இரண்டு	Erandu
3	மூன்று	Moondru
4	நான்கு	Naanku
5	ஐந்து	Ainthu
6	ஆறு	Aaru
7	ஏழு	Erlu
8	எட்டு	Ettu
9	ஒன்பது	Onpathu
10	பத்து	Paththu

Numbers 0–10 Poochchiam, Ondru, Erandu, Moondru, Naanku, Ainthu, Aaru, Erlu, Ettu, Onpathu, Paththu.

Giving your telephone number or saying your age are just two examples of when you might need to use numbers. How about giving your work identification number or your house number? Listen to the audios that follow to hear how you would say these two examples. My work identification number is 1148 | எனது வேலை அடையாள இலக்கம் ஒன்று ஒன்று நான்கு எட்டு. Enathu velai adaiyala elakkam ondru ondru naanku ettu. My house number is 7 | எனது வீட்டு இலக்கம் ஏழு. Enathu veeddu elakkam erlu. Now have a go at using numbers yourself in Activity 5. Activity 5 If someone tells you their locker code is ‘ettu, poochiam, ondru, onpathu’, what is their locker number? 8019

In Tamil culture, it is common to offer visitors a drink and some snacks soon after they arrive. The snacks are usually savoury for adults, and sweet for children. Listen to the audios to hear how to offer someone a drink and also accept an offer for a tea. What would you like to drink? Tea, coffee, a soft drink? | உங்களுக்கு என்ன குடிக்க விருப்பம்? தேநீர்,காப்பி,குளிர்பானம்.? Unkalukku enna kudikka viruppam? Theneer, kaappy, kulirpaanam? Tea would be nice, thank you | தேநீர் நன்றாக இருக்கும், நன்றி. Thenir nandraha erukkum, nandhri. (NB: Tea in Tamil culture comes automatically with milk and sugar!) I have some nice murukku. I’ll bring it | நான் நல்ல முறுக்கு வைத்திருக்கிறேன். அதை நான் கொண்டு வருவேன். Naan nalla murukku vaithirukkirein. Athey naan konduvarukkirein. Murukku (Figure 6), which was mentioned in the last audio, is a savoury, crunchy Indian snack, typically made from rice and urid (also called ‘urad’) daal flour, along with water, salt, chilli powder, asafoetida and either sesame seeds or cumin seeds. Once mixed together the ingredients are kneaded into a spiral or coil-shaped dough, either by hand or with a mould, before being deep-fried in vegetable oil.

Figure 6 (முறுக்கு) Murukku A dish of murukku. The murukku are spiral-shaped and light beige.

Activity 6

Tamil Nadu is blessed with a tropical climate (though there are hilly areas, like Kodaikanal where it can get as cool as 2.7 ^oC). The warm climate in Tamil Nadu favours the growth of several fruits, some of the most popular of which are shown in Table 6. Table 6 Fruits grown in Tamil Nadu

Fruit	Illustration	Name in Tamil	Pronunciation
Papaya	Papaya	பப்பாளி	Pappaali
Jackfruit	Jackfruit	பலாப்பழம்	Palaappalam
Wood apple	Wood apple	விளாம்பழம்	Vilaampalam
Jambu	Jambu	ஜம்பு	Jambu
Nungu	Nungu	நுங்கு	Nungu

Now listen to how to pronounce the names of the fruits given in Table 6 before testing your knowledge in Activity 7. Video 1 Fruits [MUSIC PLAYING] SENATHIRAJAH MUTHAIYA: Vanakkam. Welcome to my shop. This is wood apple. It comes from India and Sri Lanka. It is called in Tamil Vilaampalam. This is papaya. It comes from India and Sri Lanka. It is called in Tamil Pappaali. This is palmyra fruit. It comes from India and Sri Lanka. It is called in Tamil Nungu. This is jackfruit. It comes from India and Sri Lanka. It is called in Tamil Palaappalam. [MUSIC PLAYING]

Vocabulary Papaya | பப்பாளி Pappaali Jackfruit | பலாப்பழம் Palaappalam Wood apple | விளாம்பழம் Vilaampalam Jambu | ஜம்பு Jambu Nungu | நுங்கு Nungu Activity 7 Match the images of the fruit with the correct script. விளாம்பழம் Wood apple நுங்கு Nungu ஜம்பு Jambu பப்பாளி Papaya பலாப்பழம் Jackfruit

Classical Tamil music belongs to the Carnatic school of music. Carnatic music is traditional to South India, whilst Hindustani music is associated with North India. Modern Tamil songs, particularly from films, are very popular in Tamil-speaking societies. Figure 7 illustrates some of the instruments used in both traditional and modern Tamil music. Take a look at the different instruments and then move on to Section 7.1 where you will hear some of the instruments being played.

Figure 7 Instruments used in Carnatic music Poster showing carnatic musical instruments. A poster showing different carnatic musical instruments. It shows a ghatam, nadaswaram, violin, harmonium, flute, sruthi, mridangam, thambura, morsin, thavil, khanjira, veena and cymbals.

In this section you will have the opportunity to listen to some of the instruments used in Tamil music. In Video 2 a musical trio can be seen playing the mirdangam, electric violin, and morsing. The video is a recording from the national sadhana for the 95th Advent of Bhagawan Sri Sathya Sai Baba. You should watch the video from 45:07 to 47:17 to hear the music. Video 2 Tamil music Did you notice the bond between the musicians? For example at 47:08, when the violin player is pleasantly surprised by a note that the morsing player generates! The vocabulary box below lets you hear how to pronounce these three instruments being played. Listen and practise the pronuniciation yourself and then continue on to hear the harmonium and morsing being played. Vocabulary Mirdangam | மிருதங்கம் miruthangam Electric violin | மின்சார வயலின் Minsara violin Morsing | முகச்சங்கு Muha changgu The morsing is a type of ‘jaw harp’, seen in many cultures, and known by various names, such as the Jew’s harp, mouth harp, gewgaw, guimbard, khomus, trump, Ozark harp, Galician harp, or murchunga. Now watch Video 3, which gives a detailed explanation of the morsing, as well as a demonstration of how it is used. Video 3 What is a morsing? Finally, before having a go at the last activity in the course, watch Video 4. Video 4 Harmonium recital Activity 8 Match the images of the musical instruments with the correct word. Nadaswaram Nadaswaram Ghatam Ghatam Harmonium Harmonium Thavil Thavil Name three stringed instruments used in Tamil music. From Figure 7, you could have said the veena, thambura, and violin.

We hope you found this short course interesting and enjoyable! You should now have some knowledge of the history of the Tamil language, together with an understanding of the Tamil script and numbers. You will have acquired some familiarity with commonly used Tamil phrases, including the concept of ‘Vanakkam’, and you’ve also been introduced to some fruits from Tamil Nadu and instruments used in Tamil music. If you enjoyed this taster in Tamil and would be interested in a longer, paid-for version of the course, you can express you interest by e-mailing oclc@open.ac.uk. Please provide your name and contact email address. Your contact details will be kept for the sole purpose of contacting you should a longer version of the course be produced in the future and will not be used for any other purpose. If you change your mind and wish for your contact details to be deleted you can do this at any time by emailing again to oclc@open.ac.uk. Your details will be kept for a maximum of two years. Dissanayake, Samanthi (8 December 2008). "UK Tamils polarised but powerful". BBC News. Online. Available at BBC NEWS | UK | UK Tamils polarised but powerful. (Accessed 22 March 2021). Ethnologue (2021) Quoted in ‘List of languages by total number of speakers’, online. Available at List of languages by total number of speakers – Wikipedia (accessed 22 March 2021). Gopal, D. and a Matras, Y. (2013). "What languages are spoken in England and Wales?" . ESRC Centre on Dynamics of Ethnicity (CoDE). Online. Available at what-languages-are-spoken-in-england-and-wales.pdf (manchester.ac.uk). Accessed 22 March 2021. Violatti, C. (2016). Brahmi Script. World History Encyclopedia.online. Available at https://www.ancient.eu/Brahmi_Script/ (Accessed 22 March 2021). This free course was prepared by Suresh Nesaratnam and Senathirajah Muthaiya. It was first published in July 2021. Except for third party materials and otherwise stated (see terms and conditions), this content is made available under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 Licence. The material acknowledged below and within the course is Proprietary and used under licence (not subject to Creative Commons Licence). Grateful acknowledgement is made to the following sources for permission to reproduce material in this free course: Images/Tables Course Image: © sabirmallick/Getty Images Figure 1: sodabottle https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mangulam_inscription.jpg https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en Figure 2: planeMad/Wikimedia https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:India_Tamil_Nadu_locator_map.svg Figure 3: madpai https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tamil_Family.jpg https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/deed.en Figure 4: VSanandhakrishna/Getty Images Figure 5: Left: The Goddess Saraswathi, the provider of knowledge; Right: The Goddess Lakshmi, the provider of wealth. © unknown Figure 6: https://www.utkaltoday.com/mullu-murukku-recipe/ Figure 7: ghatam: Sven.petersen placed in public domain; cymbals: bayshev/Getty Images; nadaswaram: By Rahdisas - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=92503798; violin: yarn/Getty Images; harmonium: ajaykampani/Getty Images; thambura: Martin Spaink https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/; khanjira: image: brian@silverbushmusic.com https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/; flute: Kanags https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/; sruthi: image from https://www.shrutibox.co.uk; mridangam: © unknown; morsing: © unknown; thavil: image from https://saraswathymusicals.com/thavil/ ; veena: Veena.svg: Sreejithk2000 derivative work: Gringer (talk) - Veena.svg https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ Table 6 and Activity 7: Papaya: varintorn/Pixabay; Jackfruit: lilimey /Pixabay; Wood Apple: (c) unknown; Jambu: https://www.bfnsrilanka.org/; Nungu: Bernard DUPONT from FRANCE https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/deed.en Activity 8: top image: Nadaswaram: Gwengoat/Getty Images; second image: ghatam: Sven.petersen placed in public domain; third image: harmonium: ajaykampani/Getty Images; bottom image: thavil: image from https://saraswathymusicals.com/thavil/ Every effort has been made to contact copyright owners. If any have been inadvertently overlooked, the publishers will be pleased to make the necessary arrangements at the first opportunity. Don't miss out If reading this text has inspired you to learn more, you may be interested in joining the millions of people who discover our free learning resources and qualifications by visiting The Open University – www.open.edu/openlearn/free-courses.

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