What is translating? The process of transferring written text from one language into another. Anything that is written can be translated: advertisements, books, games software, legal documents, websites, film subtitles etc. Translators work either in-house (as employee of an organisation) or freelance. Usually, translators work from one or more languages into their mother tongue. What skills do I need? Excellent skills in your own languages and at least one other language as well as knowledge of and interest in other cultures and interpersonal and problem solving skills. For translators, the ability to write well in your own language, thoroughness and research skills are essential. What languages should I learn? You can become a translator with any language combination but some combinations may be more sought-after than others. At the moment, German to English is a highly sought-after combination, so if you are an English native speaker, German is a good language to have in your portfolio. If you are just beginning your language studies, you should aim to learn two languages, one of which might be a non-Western-European language. In order to work for the European Union institutions you need either French or German and one other EU language. In order to work for the UN as a translator into English you need two of the other official languages of the UN – Arabic, Chinese, French, Russian and/or Spanish. How much can I earn? Salaries vary greatly. Typical starting salaries for in-house translators or interpreters are between £18,000 and £26,000. These can go up to £50,000 and £60,000 with experience. The European Union institutions and United Nations are the best paying employers of senior translators and both institutions have a severe shortage of native English language speaking language translators and interpreters. Translation specialisation and careers There are numerous careers offered in the translation field. As mentioned above, you can be a freelance translator or you can work in-house, for instance at the United Nations or the European Commission. You can also become a Project Manager whose task is to coordinate multilingual translation projects (this is a common pathway into the profession). You would also probably specialise in one or more specific types of translation. Some of the more lucrative areas include legal, medical, technical or financial translation but there are many, many possible areas of specialisation. Translation for the legal and health services and by local authorities is known as ‘public service’ translation. Other prominent forms of translation include localisation, videogame translation, subtitling, dubbing and audio description. Many aspiring translators are attracted by the idea of literary translation of fiction, theatre or poetry. This is an area in which it is difficult to make a living full-time, but many translators combine it with the translation of other published material such as academic books, non-fiction or trade publications and with copywriting.
Building a Translation Competence Model Translation competence is the underlying system of knowledge needed to translate. It includes declarative and procedural knowledge, but the procedural knowledge is predominant. It consists of the ability to carry out the transfer process from the comprehension of the source text to the re-expression of the target text, taking into account the purpose of the translation and the characteristics of the target text readers. It is made up of five sub- competencies (bilingual, extra-linguistic, knowledge about translation, instrumental and strategic) and it activates a series of psycho-physiological mechanisms. The bilingual sub-competence. Predominantly procedural knowledge needed to communicate in two languages. It includes the specific feature of interference control when alternating between the two languages. It is made up of pragmatic, socio-linguistic, textual, grammatical and lexical knowledge in the two languages. Pragmatic knowledge is knowledge of the pragmatic conventions needed to carry out language acts that are acceptable in a given context; they make it possible to use language to express and understand linguistic functions and speech acts. Socio-linguistic knowledge is knowledge of the socio-linguistic conventions needed to carry out language acts that are acceptable in a given context; this includes knowledge of language registers (variations according to field, mode and tenor) and of dialects (variations according to geographical, social and temporal dialects). Textual knowledge is knowledge of texture (coherence and cohesion mechanisms) and of different genres with their respective conventions (structure, language features, etc.). Grammatical-lexical knowledge is knowledge of vocabulary, morphology, syntax andphonology/graphology. Extra-linguistic sub-competence. Predominantly declarative knowledge, both implicit and explicit, about the world in general and special areas. It includes: (1) bicultural knowledge (about the source and target cultures); (2) encyclopaedic knowledge (about the world in general); (3) subject knowledge (in special areas). Knowledge about translation sub-competence. Predominantly declarative knowledge, both implicit and explicit, about what translation is and aspects of the profession. It includes: (1) knowledge about how translation functions: types of translation units, processes required, methods and procedures used (strategies and techniques), and types of problems; (2) knowledge related to professional translation practice: knowledge of the work market (different types of briefs, clients and audiences, etc.). Instrumental sub-competence. Predominantly procedural knowledge related to the use of documentation sources and information and communication technologies applied to translation: dictionaries of all kinds, encyclopaedias, grammars, style books, parallel texts, electronic corpora, searchers, etc. Strategic sub-competence. Procedural knowledge to guarantee the efficiency of the translation process and solve the problems encountered. This is an essential sub-competence that affects all the others and causes inter-relations amongst them because it controls the translation process. Its functions are: (1) to plan the process and carry out the translation project (choice of the most adequate method); (2) to evaluate the process and the partial results obtained in relation to the final purpose; (3) to activate the different sub-competencies and compensate for deficiencies in them; (4) to identify translation problems and apply procedures to solve them. Psycho-physiological components. Different types of cognitive and attitudinal components and psycho-motor mechanisms. They include: (1) cognitive components such as memory, perception, attention and emotion; (2) attitudinal aspects such as intellectual curiosity, perseverance, rigour, critical spirit, knowledge of and confidence in one’s own abilities, the ability to measure one’s own abilities, motivation, etc.; (3) abilities such as creativity, logical reasoning, analysis and synthesis, etc. (PACTE, 2003, pp. 16–17)
When I sit down in the morning, generally it almost never happens that I don’t have a job on, but the first thing I do is check through my emails, and if I’m looking for work, then I’ll go straight to that, see what’s coming up, if there’s anything I can bid for, or answer any queries. Then I will get down to whatever it is I’m doing that day, and work steadily. As I’m working I can see emails coming in. I will always check my emails coming in, unless I’m doing a proofreading job, which I’m doing on a timed basis, in which case I won’t check emails because it’s not fair to the client. If something interesting comes up, then I’ll stop working and I’ll go after that job and put in a bid, or write to the project manager saying that I can do the job and negotiate the rate. That’s where you’re multitasking, because you are doing a translation, but you keep switching over to set up your next jobs. I generally work from about 8:45 am until midday. By a quarter past twelve I’m ravenously hungry. Quite often I just have half an hour for lunch and then get back to work. Work-life balance is very important so on Tuesdays and Fridays I walk to the leisure centre and I swim for half an hour. On Thursdays I walk with Casterbridge Ramblers, so I’ll do a seven or eight miles walk on a Thursday. And then I’ve got my personal trainer. She pops up on my computer screen every hour and gives me three simple exercises. As well as keeping my metabolic rate up, if I’ve been concentrating very hard, I can move around, do the exercises, it just takes three minutes, and it refreshes me. I generally stop around five to cook supper, and then if I’m not up against a deadline, I’ll just do other stuff in the evening. If I’m up against a deadline, I’ll get back to work after supper. I never work weekends, unless it’s doing voluntary things like for the Nicaragua Solidarity Campaign, if they’ve sent me something I’ll do it but that’s not work… I try to save weekends for family time. I do my invoicing generally on a Friday after I’ve stopped working. It makes you feel good, thinking ‘I’ve earned all this money!’ even though it’s such a tedious task. (Gillian Holmes, BA (Hons), MA, MITI, translator, Spanish and French to English)
Each day is different since a translator, particularly a freelance, needs to deal with a number of tasks and there is no typical day. I usually get up at around 7 in the morning, shower, have breakfast and get to my desk at around 8 just as my wife is leaving to drive to her office. Like most freelances I have my office at home. I work in spells of 50 minutes and take a break even if it is just to walk around the house. I try and take at least half an hour for lunch and try to finish at around 5 unless there is urgent work and then I will perhaps work in the evening for an hour or so. But I do the latter only if a premium payment is offered and I wish to accept the work. If I were to analyse an average working month of 22 possible working days, I would get the following:
Task or item to which time is accounted Time spent on the task Translation including project management, research, draft translation, proofreading and editing, resolving queries and administration Fifteen and a half days Office administration including invoicing, purchasing and correspondence (tax issues and bookkeeping are dealt with by my accountant) Two days External activities such as networking and marketing One day Continuous personal development including – and this is not a joke – watching relevant TV programmes or reading articles on subjects in which you have or wish to improve your expertise. One day Public or other holidays (say 21 days leave and 7 days public holidays) Two and a half days My average monthly output for these fifteen and a half effective days is around 28,000 words. If this is spread out over effective working days of six working hours (8 x 50 minutes in reality), my effective hourly production rate is 300 words an hour. This may not seem a lot but it may be worth considering that to expect to work undisturbed on translation eight hours a day, five days a week, is unrealistic. There may also be times when you are physically or mentally unable to work – how do you take account of such eventualities as a freelance? (Samuelsson-Brown, 2010, pp. 3–4)
My typical day consists of assessing and quoting translation projects for our clients, as well as editing and proofreading projects before they are returned to the client. We get a variety of different types of documents to deal with, so while the basic format of my day stays the same, each project usually brings its own unique complications with it. Technology plays a significant role in my work, both professional and voluntary. Particularly in managing projects, we’re continually looking for ways we can incorporate technology into our work to assist and improve on the quality of our service. In particular, the translator database, where we can quickly select the most appropriate translator for a particular type of project and language combination, is immensely useful and we are aiming to expand this system across the whole of our management process. Personally I think the recent emphasis on learning to use translation technologies, understanding the translation industry as a whole, as opposed to focusing solely on translation skills, is really important. (Vicky Sharvill, BA (Hons), MA, Spanish and Japanese, project manager)
A normal day for me starts at nine after dropping the children off at school. I’ll already have checked my emails earlier in the morning so I usually know if anything urgent is waiting for me. My deadlines are often quite short – 24 or 48 hours. If possible I translate, sleep on it and review the next day, so I’ll start by reviewing anything I’ve done the day before and send off any assignments that are due. If I’m busy, I translate until three with a short break for lunch, and if necessary I’ll work in the evenings as well – it’s not ideal, but a deadline is a deadline! Most of my work comes from two agencies in Italy. One of them sends me work almost every day. It is usually for the same client, and I translate their marketing materials. There is a regular blog, but I have also done presentations and speeches and more technical pieces. The other agency sends bigger jobs that keep me busy for a couple of weeks at a time. Once a quarter I work on a bilingual magazine, and I have recently translated a wine guide. That was the ultimate project for me! In addition, I translate for three UK agencies, and this work is more business and medical. Although I specialise in marketing and medical texts, within those subjects there is huge variety – one day I’ll be working on a French pharmaceuticals text, the next I’ll be discovering the world of Italian chandeliers! I’ll normally have some sort of email conversation with one or more of the project managers I work with in the day – although I like working from home, it’s still nice to have that contact. Two of the UK agencies are local to me and I know the contacts personally – it’s great to get to know the people you work with. I am also looking into approaching private clients – mainly because I would like to be able to smooth out my workflow, which isn’t always predictable. That’s why I keep an action list for quieter days, to keep myself focused, and that’s when I fit in other aspects of the job – marketing, accounting, researching subject matter and terminology and so on. I was quite nervous about the accounting side of things, but have actually found it easy to get to grips with. Although I employ an accountant, I send out my own invoices at the end of each month, and chase any late payments. There have been a couple, but they have always been paid following a polite reminder! I keep a spreadsheet of my income and expenses, and try to keep everything up to date. I do a fair amount of CPD. I try to read or watch TV in my source languages every day. This last year I have attended workshops through the ITI (Institute of Translators and Interpreters) on terminology, memoQ, corpora and transcreation. Developing my skills and learning new aspects of the job always gives me a boost – and it’s great to meet other translators. Another great way to keep up with other translators is through the ITI’s regional and professional networks. There’s a real community out there, and hardly a day goes by when I’m not in touch with another translator. Every couple of weeks I Skype a colleague who started her business at the same time as me. We have collaborated on a big project, and hope to work again together soon, but mainly we bounce ideas off each other and share what’s happening in our week. It’s a good way to encourage each other. I also have another translator friend who has been like a mentor to me. We are in touch less frequently now, but she is always on hand to answer any questions I have. I would definitely recommend finding someone who is happy to give you advice, guidance and encouragement. (Charis Ainslie, MA, MSc, freelance translator (Italian and French into English) and editor)
The translators mentioned a wide range of tasks. Some are the sorts of things that you probably associate more closely with translating itself, such as translating, researching subject matter and terminology, proofreading and editing and resolving queries from clients. However, there are also a whole range of other tasks that are also essential to managing a business as a translator. These include: bidding for work, quoting and giving estimates, bookkeeping and invoicing, dealing with clients or project managers, project managing and marketing your business. Some of the aspects of the work mentioned by several translators related to the importance of time management, especially the ability to work to tight deadlines, but also to organise yourself and multitask when necessary or, at other times, to concentrate on a specific translation task without letting yourself be distracted. Several translators mentioned the importance of taking breaks and maintaining a healthy work/life balance, which is particularly important if you work as a freelancer. Several translators also mentioned that is important to take time to engage in CPD (continuous professional development), including keeping up your language skills. We will focus on this aspect in Section 3. Finally, because translating as a freelancer can be a fairly lonely profession, it is also important to have contact with other professionals, through networking opportunities, but also by keeping in touch with colleagues or mentors to seek advice, guidance and encouragement.
During my MA in Specialised Translation, a guest speaker talked about the benefit of volunteering in relation to gaining practical experience – many agencies require one, two, three or more years’ translation experience before they will allow you to register with them. She mentioned a Spanish magazine concerned with social inclusion, cooperation and support, and care for the environment. They were planning to launch an English-language version and were looking for new ES>EN translators to help them out. I worked with the magazine’s editor-in-chief and a team of volunteer translators for several months, and I translated a number of articles including one on sustainable architecture and an interview with the linguist and political activist, Noam Chomsky. I also proofread texts translated by others working on the project. This was invaluable experience for a newly trained translator whose aim was to go straight into freelancing, particularly in terms of understanding the process (translation, self-checking/editing, revision by another translator – the ‘four-eyes’ principle), working to deadlines, having something to put on my CV and gaining a worthwhile referee in the editor-in-chief, who certainly helped me win my first few agency clients. I have also translated on a voluntary basis for The Rosetta Foundation, an organisation that connects language volunteers with non-profit organisations that work with under-served communities, providing access to language services that would otherwise be unavailable to them. For them, I have translated details of IT courses, training programmes and project proposals, from Spanish and French into English. There are many other organisations that need volunteer translators as well as those that act as a network, such as Translators Without Borders – although they require a minimum of two years’ translation experience. I intend to do more in the future – it feels good to be doing something positive, to use my skills for the good of others. (Keith Baddeley, freelance IT, business and financial translator, Spanish/French/Romanian to English, Veracitrad)
| Proficient User | C2 | Can understand with ease virtually everything heard or read. Can summarise information from different spoken and written sources, reconstructing arguments and accounts in a coherent presentation. Can express him/herself spontaneously, very fluently and precisely, differentiating finer shades of meaning even in more complex situations. |
| C1 | Can understand a wide range of demanding, longer texts, and recognise implicit meaning. Can express him/herself fluently and spontaneously without much obvious searching for expressions. Can use language flexibly and effectively for social, academic and professional purposes. Can produce clear, well-structured, detailed text on complex subjects, showing controlled use of organisational patterns, connectors and cohesive devices. | |
| Independent User | B2 | Can understand the main ideas of complex text on both concrete and abstract topics, including technical discussions in his/her field of specialisation. Can interact with a degree of fluency and spontaneity that makes regular interaction with native speakers quite possible without strain for either party. Can produce clear, detailed text on a wide range of subjects and explain a viewpoint on a topical issue giving the advantages and disadvantages of various options. |
| B1 | Can understand the main points of clear standard input on familiar matters regularly encountered in work, school, leisure, etc. Can deal with most situations likely to arise whilst travelling in an area where the language is spoken. Can produce simple connected text on topics, which are familiar, or of personal interest. Can describe experiences and events, dreams, hopes & ambitions and briefly give reasons and explanations for opinions and plans. | |
| Basic User | A2 | Can understand sentences and frequently used expressions related to areas of most immediate relevance (e.g. very basic personal and family information, shopping, local geography, employment). Can communicate in simple and routine tasks requiring a simple and direct exchange of information on familiar and routine matters. Can describe in simple terms aspects of his/her background, immediate environment and matters in areas of immediate need. |
| A1 | Can understand and use familiar everyday expressions and very basic phrases aimed at the satisfaction of needs of a concrete type. Can introduce him/herself and others and can ask and answer questions about personal details such as where he/she lives, people he/she knows and things he/she has. Can interact in a simple way provided the other person talks slowly and clearly and is prepared to help. |
Sociolinguistic competences refer to the sociocultural conditions of language use. Through its sensitivity to social conventions (rules of politeness, norms governing relations between generations, sexes, classes and social groups, linguistic codification of certain fundamental rituals in the functioning of a community), the sociolinguistic component strictly affects all language communication between representatives of different cultures, even though participants may often be unaware of its influence. Pragmatic competences are concerned with the functional use of linguistic resources (production of language functions, speech acts), drawing on scenarios or scripts of interactional exchanges. It also concerns the mastery of discourse, cohesion and coherence, the identification of text types and forms, irony, and parody. For this component even more than the linguistic component, it is hardly necessary to stress the major impact of interactions and cultural environments in which such abilities are constructed. (CEFR, 2002, p. 13)
| Overall reading comprehension | |
|---|---|
| C2 | |
| C1 | Can understand in detail lengthy, complex texts, whether or not they relate to his/her own area of speciality, provided he/she can reread difficult sections. |
| Overall written interaction | |
|---|---|
| C2 | As C1 |
| C1 | Can express him/herself with clarity and precision, relating to the addressee flexibly and effectively. |
| Overall listening comprehension | |
|---|---|
| C2 | Has no difficulty in understanding any kind of spoken language, whether live or broadcast, delivered at fast native speed. |
| C1 |
My working languages are French and Italian into English. I learned French at school and did French and Italian at university followed by a Masters in Translation and Interpreting. I have lived and worked in France, and take every opportunity to spend time in Italy. I am particularly fascinated by Sicily. I also speak a little Arabic, having lived in Egypt for a year. I would love to add it to my working languages, but I’m not there yet! (Charis Ainslie, a freelance translator (Italian and French into English) and editor)
I studied French and German at O-level and A-level at school and then did two years of a degree course before having to give up for family reasons. I came back to languages 20 years later, initially studying Spanish ab initio with The Open University. That turned into six years studying for a BA (Hons) in Modern Language Studies (Spanish and French). I then did an MA in Specialised Translation at the University of Westminster in 2014/15. I speak Spanish and French at C1 and still a smattering of German, perhaps to B1. During my MA, I also learnt Romanian during a subsidiary language module, although mostly passively. In other words, I can hardly speak it at all, but can pronounce it, read it and translate from it. Today, I use Spanish, French and Romanian in my translation work.
Living in Spain definitely helps with my Spanish! I make sure I watch the news in Spanish, popular TV programs, the radio, etc. – all these help with my speaking in particular. I also do this for French, but to a lesser extent – online video news around twice a week. I also read a lot in Spanish and French, but usually more popular texts (novels, magazines, etc.) rather than the type of texts I translate – which of course I’m reading too in my source languages, as I only translate into English, which definitely maintains my language competence. It’s easy to let your source language(s) / second language(s) slide – from a speaking and writing perspective – if you don’t produce them and only translate from them, so the key is to keep producing your non-native languages as much as possible. If you don’t live in your native-language country, make sure you don’t neglect your native language either; you need to keep that up too, in my case, through reading the British press, watching British TV, listening to British radio.
I would say three things: first of all, produce your second language on any occasion you can – speak it with friends; write it, even if it’s just for you. If you have agency clients in your second-language country, email them in that language, speak to them in that language – not in your native language. This is hard to get used to, but not only does it help you maintain your second language, it’s professional too. In my experience, even though I translate into English only and am seen as an English-language specialist, clients appreciate it so much when I communicate with them in their language. Sometimes, there’s no alternative: not all project managers in translation agencies in France, for example, speak English.
Secondly, if you are translating from your second language (and most people do professionally), go to trade shows etc. related to your specialist areas that are in your second-language country. Prepare and practise what you want to say before you leave for the show. While you’re there, speak to anyone and everyone about their products, their services – in your second language. This is so important because such trade shows are a great source of direct clients, and you need to win and maintain those direct clients preferably using your second language. Finally, in the early days of being a translator, even though you have level C1 in your second language, you will find you look up words a lot more than you thought you would and that you can never imagine translating 2,000 to 3,000 words a day. This is normal. It’s all to do with experience and wanting to be sure you’ve chosen the right word, correct phrasing in the target language. Don’t get disheartened. It will get easier after a few busy months - you end up trusting yourself more, trusting your instincts and settle into your own way of writing for the type of texts you specialise on. (Keith Baddeley, freelance IT, business and financial translator, Spanish/French/Romanian to English, Veracitrad)
I translate from Polish into English and English into Polish, as well as from French into English. I have experience of translating literary and journalistic texts.
I’m fluent in Polish, English and French (C2). I also have some knowledge of Spanish (A2) and German (A1), and I’m currently learning Japanese (I’m a beginner). Polish is my native language, and I learned English and French when I was still at school. I took up Spanish, German and Japanese when I was already working full-time as a digital content manager.
Maintaining fluency can be a challenge, especially with languages I don’t use frequently. Reading (newspapers, magazines and fiction) is my favourite way of keeping up my competence in my languages. I try to speak as much as possible as well, even if it’s just talking to myself! I try to incorporate language learning into my daily routine and make the most of the time I have to get better (e.g. by reading the news in foreign languages only, or listening to podcasts on my way to work).
My main piece of advice would be to focus on idiomatic language and collocations. Good translation is about making language sound natural, which is difficult to do without the knowledge of how idiomatic expressions and collocations work. Reading extensively, both in your target language and your source language, is in my experience the best way to approach this challenge. I also strongly recommend that students focus on expanding their vocabulary vertically. What I mean by that is not learning more words but learning additional ways of expressing the things they can already say. This includes learning synonyms and understanding the difference between them. Accurate translation requires knowing the difference between two words which may initially look very similar. Finally, I would encourage students to reflect on what it is that they’re interested in, and what their strengths are. Translation is a very versatile field, with a number of specialisms. Understanding what excites and motivates you is a key element of your professional development that can help you shape your career and focus on the things that are right for you. (Agnieszka Murdoch (BA, MA, CELTA), language coach, blogger and freelance translator)
| Mother tongue(s) | English | ||||
| Other language(s) | UNDERSTANDING | SPEAKING | WRITING | ||
| Listening | Reading | Spoken interaction | Spoken production | ||
| Spanish | C1 | C1 | B2 | B2 | C1 |
| Mother tongue(s) | Italian | ||||
| Other language(s) | UNDERSTANDING | SPEAKING | WRITING | ||
| Listening | Reading | Spoken interaction | Spoken production | ||
| English | C1 | B2 | C1 | C1 | B2 |
| Source text | Semantic translation | Communicative translation |
|---|---|---|
| Bissiger Hund! | Dog that bites! | |
| Défense de marcher sur le gazon | It is forbidden to walk on the turf | |
| Attention / Glissant | Attention / Slippery | |
| Frisch gestrichen! | Recently painted! | |
| Hombres trabajando | Men working | |
| Al salir tengan cuidado de no introducir el pie entre coche y andén | When you leave, take care not to put your foot in between the train and the platform | |
| 一箭双雕 | One arrow for two birds | |
| 软硬兼施 | Soft and hard measures combined | |
| Vietato l’ingresso | Entry forbidden | |
| Si prega di non disturbare | You are asked not to disturb |
| Source text | Semantic translation | Communicative translation |
|---|---|---|
| Bissiger Hund! | Dog that bites! | Beware of the dog! |
| Défense de marcher sur le gazon | It is forbidden to walk on the turf | Keep off the grass |
| Attention / Glissant | Attention / Slippery | Caution / Slippery when wet |
| Frisch gestrichen! | Recently painted! | Wet paint! |
| Hombres trabajando | Men working | Men at work |
| Al salir tengan cuidado de no introducir el pie entre coche y andén | When you leave, take care not to put your foot in between the train and the platform | Mind the gap |
| 一箭双雕 | One arrow for two birds | To kill two birds with one stone |
| 软硬兼施 | Soft and hard measures combined | The carrot and stick approach |
| Vietato l’ingresso | Entry forbidden | No entry |
| Si prega di non disturbare | You are asked not to disturb | Do not disturb |
| Source text | Semantic translation | Communicative translation |
|---|---|---|
| Beware of the dog! | ||
| Keep off the grass | ||
| Caution / Slippery when wet | ||
| Wet paint! | ||
| Men at work | ||
| Mind the gap | ||
| To kill two birds with one stone | ||
| The carrot and stick approach | ||
| No entry | ||
| Do not disturb |