PWC_1Leadership and organisational cultureStep up to leadershipAbout this free courseThis version of the content may include video, images and interactive content that may not be optimised for your device. You can experience this free course as it was originally designed on OpenLearn, the home of free learning from The Open University –There you’ll also be able to track your progress via your activity record, which you can use to demonstrate your learning.

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When using the content you must attribute us (The Open University) (the OU) and any identified author in accordance with the terms of the Creative Commons Licence.The Acknowledgements section is used to list, amongst other things, third party (Proprietary), licensed content which is not subject to Creative Commons licensing. Proprietary content must be used (retained) intact and in context to the content at all times.The Acknowledgements section is also used to bring to your attention any other Special Restrictions which may apply to the content. For example there may be times when the Creative Commons Non-Commercial Sharealike licence does not apply to any of the content even if owned by us (The Open University). In these instances, unless stated otherwise, the content may be used for personal and non-commercial use.We have also identified as Proprietary other material included in the content which is not subject to Creative Commons Licence. These are OU logos, trading names and may extend to certain photographic and video images and sound recordings and any other material as may be brought to your attention.Unauthorised use of any of the content may constitute a breach of the terms and conditions and/or intellectual property laws.We reserve the right to alter, amend or bring to an end any terms and conditions provided here without notice.All rights falling outside the terms of the Creative Commons licence are retained or controlled by The Open University.Head of Intellectual Property, The Open University A leader is one who knows the way, goes the way and shows the way.(John C. Maxwell, cited in Dempsey and Forst, 2011, p. 35)Are you a leader? Do you – as Maxwell asserts in the quote above – know the way, go the way and show the way?In recent years the concept of leaders and leadership has become increasingly popular, but what exactly is leadership? A quick search of Amazon.co.uk returns over 100,000 books relating to leadership and being a leader. Many of these books promise unique insights into the ‘secrets’ of leaders or organisations, while others outline a number of ‘proven’ steps that will transform anyone’s approach to being a leader. Is being a leader really so simple?In this course you will examine the idea of leadership and what it means to be a leader in a modern-day policing organisation or a leader in your community. You will also look at how effective Policing with the Community can be achieved with shared goals. You will step away from the jargon and hype to understand what leadership means in practice and on the ground. You will look not just at key concepts of leadership but also the way in which these can be applied in a practical and realistic way. Underpinning this will be the important recognition that anyone at any level within an organisation can step up to leadership. Being a leader is not about a title, rank or position, but rather is about the attitude, skills and behaviours you demonstrate.Upon completing this course you will have:developed a clear understanding of the concept of leadershipreflected on personal leadership styleconsidered what leadership might mean in different contextsunderstood the role of a leader in developing others and creating a positive workplace culture.There are many ways of understanding leadership and what it means to be a leader – as already noted, there are literally thousands of books on the subject! Perhaps not surprisingly, therefore, there are numerous definitions of leadership, many of which contrast the related ideas of leadership and management. Some of these are outlined below.Management focuses on speed and methods – doing things right. Leadership focuses on direction and purpose – doing the right things. (Covey, 1989)Management is about coping with complexity. Leadership, by contrast, is about coping with change. (Kotter, 1990)Leadership is a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal. (Northouse, 2010)A leader shapes and shares a vision which gives point to the work of others. (Handy, 1992) There are a number of themes of leadership running through these definitions, including:having a vision, direction and purposedeveloping and establishing a common goalworking with changeinfluencing othersgiving meaning to others.On reading these definitions, you might have noticed something very important: none make any mention of rank, title, position or authority. Leadership, and consequently being a leader, is something that exists separate to formal organisational structures and is about the behaviours you demonstrate. In practice, this means that leaders and those demonstrating leadership behaviours can be found at all levels of an organisation, irrespective of rank or title.Activity 1 Who is a leader?Allow approximately 5 minutesThink of someone you regard as a leader – for example, your manager, a colleague or someone in your community. What is it about them that makes you consider them a leader?There is no simple answer to the question of who is a leader. As you reflect on your answers to this task you might note real differences between the people you have mentioned. Some might be leaders by virtue of their role, title or position in an organisation, while others might be leaders as a consequence of their personal or other qualities. Another theme emerging from the definitions already identified is a distinction between leadership and management.Do leadership and management overlap, or is there a clear distinction between the two? Current thinking on this varies.While leadership might typically be about creating a vision, providing a sense of direction and gaining the commitment of others, management is often seen as being much more mundane and involved with the day-to-day work of organising people and resources to achieve given goals, including activities like planning, budgeting, staffing and so on. The key differences are summarised in the table shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 The key activities of leadership and managementThe diagram shows two columns, each in the form of a flowchart, which outline the key elements of, respectively, leadership and management. The column on the left is entitled Leadership and then flows from top to bottom: Leadership, Establishing direction, Aligning people, Motivating and inspiring and Produces change, often in dramatic degree, and has the potential to produce really useful change. The column on the right is entitled Management and then flows from top to bottom: Management, Planning and budgeting, Organisation and staffing, Controlling and problem solving, and finally Produces a degree of predictability and order and has the potential to consistently produce the short-term results expected by stakeholders.

Unfortunately, and despite being critical for organisational success, the practice of management and being a manager is often undervalued and even regarded negatively. As management guru Peter Drucker once put it, ‘Most of what we call management consists of making it difficult for people to get their work done’ (The Economist, 2014). Consequently, the challenge for anyone in a management position is to get the best out of being a manager while also striving to engage with some of the very positive aspects of leadership.Activity 2 Leadership and management in policing with the communityAllow approximately 10 minutesConsidering the descriptions of leadership and management given earlier in this section, which aspects of both do you think are most relevant for successful partnerships between leaders in the police and the community?The key qualities of leadership and management required for successful community partnerships will vary both over and between different situations. As a leader – or manager – you must be prepared to draw upon the key skills of either as situations demand.Leadership is one of the most important predictors of whether organizations are able to effectively function in dynamic environments … and as such the need for effective police leadership is greater than ever.(Pearson-Goff and Herrington, 2013, p. 14)Curiously, while much energy and effort has been spent on considering leadership in a range of other contexts, leadership in policing has not been studied to the same extent (Schafer, 2009). One recent study argued that there are seven key characteristics and five key activities which define effective police leadership:(Adapted from Pearson-Goff and Herrington, 2013, pp. 20–21)

Characteristics	Ethical behaviourTrustworthinessLegitimacyBeing a role modelCommunicationDecision makingCritical, creative and strategic thinking ability
Activities	Creating a shared visionEngendering organisational commitmentCaring for subordinatesDriving and managing changeProblem solving

To put this in some context, it is worth considering comments made by Edward Flynn, a former chief of police in Milwaukee, and noted scholar Victoria Herrington, who argue that:Leaders require a blend of management skills (e.g., planning, organizing, budgeting, staffing and directing), personal skills (e.g. the ability to communicate, motivate and inspire others), leadership skills (e.g., strategic focus, analytical competency and cognitive flexibility), and, in policing, a healthy dose of operational experience. … Leadership requires the organization to support the use of these skills to create a learning environment.(Flynn and Herrington, 2015, p. 14)Activity 3 Reflecting on leadership in policingAllow approximately 10 minutesThis activity requires you to watch and reflect on the following video, in which Police Service of Northern Ireland (PSNI) Constable Michael Allen talks about his experience of leadership in a policing context. In the video, he focuses on the following areas:What is leadership in a policing context?How does this differ from leadership in other contexts?What do good police leaders do?What do bad police leaders do?How can people step up into leadership?Video 1 Constable Michael Allen talks about his experience of leadershipMICHAEL ALLEN: As a police constable, we are the first people to be a leader. We are trusted by our community to do the best we can to help the community. And I suppose that's where it comes from. We work with the community. We are trusted to work. And we need to take ownership of an investigation and ownership on advice, both inside with our peers or colleagues but also with the community that we work with. As a constable, I don't really have a rank. I am just- I am a person who has been entrusted to help people, help the community, and help to do the best that I can. As a constable, to be a leader, I can motivate my colleagues that I work with. If I go to a community meeting, I can motivate the community to help themselves regardless if they are an elected member of a local council. But it's about communities being able to help themselves and to give people that, I suppose, support and empowerment to help themselves. I think there's a fear. I think one of the barriers is the fear of getting something wrong. It's OK to get something wrong. It's learning from the mistake. So there's definitely that fear. There's definitely that, have I got the ability to do it? Am I a strong enough person to do that, that sort of self-doubt. And I suppose that leads into confidence to actually step up and to use the initiative, to take that, if you want, that calculated risk. And to actually do something.The most valuable leadership lesson for me is to be open and honest, particularly around decision-making. As I said previously, I'm a constable and human being. And it's acknowledging that at times we can get things wrong. But it's being able to learn from any mistakes that we have, being able to step up and say, I bet I could do that a different way. I maybe done that wrong this time, and acknowledging that, but also showing respect for the people that you're working with, that you work for, and within the community, within policing- I suppose having someone who will respect you, allowing you to do what you can do, being able to, I suppose, take a calculated risk to say, I can make a difference, and have the ability and the confidence to do that. Advice I would give about stepping up is, do it. Take the opportunity. Take the chance. Ask the right questions. Ask for help if you need it. Take ownership of an idea, of an initiative. Feel free to use your initiative. Ask for the support. Ask for help if you need it. And just try to do what you can. Do the best that you can, knowing that it can make a difference.

After you have watched the video, take some time to reflect on the points made by Constable Allen. As you do so, consider the following questions:Does Constable Allen’s experience of leadership in policing match yours or would you view things quite differently?If you’re viewing this clip from a policing point of view, what leadership qualities do you admire in a police or police-staff leader?Alternatively, if you’re viewing it from a community point of view, what leadership qualities do you admire in a police or police-staff leader? What could be improved?Make notes of your observations in the box below.Leadership is a very personal concept. Our individual views of leadership and leaders can differ greatly and very much depend on our experience of the leadership behaviours demonstrated by each person, not just the title or position that they hold.So what does it mean to be a leader? As you have already learned, leadership and being a leader is less about your title, rank or position than it is about what you do and how you do it. DuBrin (2010) outlines a number of key personality traits of effective leaders, dividing them between general personality traits (i.e. those that are generally displayed both in work and outside of work) and task-related personality traits (i.e. those that are more directly related to getting the job done):(DuBrin, 2010)

General personality traits	Self-confidenceHumilityTrustworthinessSense of humour AuthenticityEnthusiasm, optimism and warmthAssertivenessExtraversion
Task-related personality traits	Passion for the work and the peopleCourageInternal locus of control (i.e. the degree to which a person feels they have control over events impacting on them)Flexibility and adaptabilityEmotional intelligence

Activity 4 Self-assessmentAllow approximately 5 minutesTake a moment to rate your ‘work self’ on a scale of one to ten against each of the traits listed above. (You might like to have a friend or colleague evaluate you against the key criteria too.) What do your results tell you about your own approach to leadership? How might this vary from situation to situation?It can often be challenging to evaluate yourself and rate yourself against key behavioural traits. It can consequently be useful to compare notes with someone who knows you well to get their perception of you. Flagging and exploring any big gaps between your perception of self and their perception of you could be helpful for your development as a leader.

Looking beyond traits, it’s also important to consider the context in which leadership takes place. First developed in the 1960s by Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard (Hersey and Blanchard, 1969), the situational leadership model is based on the idea that how an individual leader acts depends on the nature of the situation in which they find themselves. Consequently, the most relevant and appropriate behaviours can vary greatly from situation to situation. As shown in the diagram in Figure 2, this model is based on the combination of both directive behaviours (i.e. those designed to help group members achieve goals using guidance and direction) and supportive behaviours, which provide motivation that helps to keep group members focused on their objectives.

Figure 2 Situational leadership The diagram shows a four-box model with two axes: Supportive Behaviour from Low to High on the vertical axis and Directive Behaviour from Low to High on the horizontal axis. Each of the four boxes shows a unique combination of the behaviours. These are arranged as follows:Bottom Right Box, labelled Number 1: Combination of High Directive Behaviour and Low Supportive Behaviour which together lead to a Directing management style.Top Right Box, labelled Number 2: Combination of High Directive Behaviour and High Supportive Behaviour which together lead to a Coaching management style.Top Left Box, labelled Number 3: Combination of Low Directive Behaviour and High Supportive Behaviour which together lead to a Supporting management style.Bottom Left Box, labelled Number 4: Combination of Low Directive Behaviour and Low Supportive Behaviour which together lead to a Delegating management style.Arrows demonstrate a flow from Directing to Coaching to Supporting to, finally, Delegating, indicating the progress managers can make in their management style as team-member experience grows.

The underlying ethos of the situational leadership model is that you can maximise leadership effectiveness by being aware of the relationship between ‘people behaviour’ and ‘task behaviour’, and therefore help people to be more productive and fulfilled in their roles. Each person with whom the leader interacts will be at a different stage of need and will therefore require a different leadership style in order for that interaction to be effective.

Beyond the traits and behaviours they demonstrate, leaders also need to remember that they are being judged and evaluated constantly by those around them – and this can have an impact on their effectiveness as a leader. On a certain level, this might seem to be common sense; after all, leaders of all types have often sought to dress or look the part.Activity 5 Who do you see as a leader?Allow approximately 10 minutesLeadership comes in many guises. Which of the following would you see as a leader, and why?

Figure 3 Which of these are leaders? Top, left to right: Bill Gates, Nelson Mandela, Taylor Swift. Bottom, left to right: Norman Foster, Michelle Obama, Angela MerkelA series of headshots of leaders. Along the top, left to right: Bill Gates (smiling, wearing dark-rimmed glasses and with neat greying hair), Nelson Mandela (smiling, smartly dressed in a suit and looking away from the camera), Taylor Swift (wearing a frilled purple top and with hair styled back, looking sideways). Along the bottom, left to right: Norman Foster (with close cropped white/grey hair, wearing a dark top and looking directly at the camera), Michelle Obama (wearing a dark top, pearls, with styled dark hair and smiling for the camera), and Angela Merkel (smiling towards the camera, with neat light brown hair and a blue suit).

Which of these famous faces did you consider to be a leader? You might wish to compare your responses to a friend, colleague or family member and explore the differences. Understanding not just what those differences are but the reasons for them can be quite revealing.Recent research in the field of neuroscience has determined how we are judged not just for who we are but for how we are perceived by others. Lyons and O’Mara explain this process as follows.We make person judgements on the basis of two simple processes. First, a snap judgement of how cold or warm we feel toward the person. Does this person elicit feelings of kindness, affection, admiration? The feeling of cold or warmth that another elicits is intuitively easy to understand – to label someone as ‘very cold’ is to condemn them. It suggests they are devoid of emotions, that they are selfish, and probably untrustworthy in some core respect. Second, a snap judgement of the competence or incompetence of the person. Competence is less intuitively obvious, but refers to the judgement that the person is capable of acting on their wishes and desires – and further, whether they mean us harm or not. We then combine these judgements quickly. These rapidly-formed composite judgements (Cold/Warmth and Incompetence/Competence) reliably and rapidly elicit particular emotions, and these emotions in turn directly and indirectly drive our behaviour toward the other person.(Lyons and O’Mara, 2016, p. 25)In this way, leaders are judged in a similar way to brands:Leaders are judged as both persons and as brands. Being judged as both a person and as a brand has profound implications for how leaders should manage and present themselves within the groups and organizations they lead.(Lyons and O’Mara, 2016, p. 23)These thoughts from Lyons and O’Mara (2016) are developed from the work of Fiske (2011) who created a model called the ‘Stereotype Content Model of Perception’. In the following activity you will learn more about how this model works in practice.Activity 6 The Stereotype Content Model of PerceptionAllow approximately 10 minutesWatch the animation in Figure 4 which describes the Stereotype Content Model of Perception, based on the work of Fiske (2011).Figure 4 The Stereotype Content Model of Perception (adapted from Fiske, 2011) SPEAKERResearch from neuroscientists has found that as humans, we tend to evaluate others based on two basic parameters-- how warm we feel towards them and how competent we believe them to be. What is really interesting is that this assessment has been found to operate not just at a conscious or even unconscious level, but at a physical level in various structures of the brain. This highlights the fact that our reactions are deeply instinctive. We have them whether we consciously want to or not. So how does this work? When we combine warmth and competence in a four box model, we can see four basic combinations of how we might perceive someone. Feelings of high warmth and low competence have been associated with feelings of pity. Feelings of high warmth and high competence have been associated with feelings of pride. Feelings of low warmth and high competence have been associated with feelings of envy. Feelings of low warmth and low competence have been associated with feelings of disgust. Some examples might help illustrate this. Think of someone you know, who you regard warmly as a person but don't regard as being particularly competent. You might have friends or even family in this category, people who you are quite fond of and enjoy spending social time with but wouldn't necessarily regard as being particularly capable or skillful. This might lead to feelings of pity toward them. Equally, you might know someone who is indisputably capable and skillful at their job. So that is competent. But you struggle to engage with them on a personal level, as they might be quite cold and distant. You might acknowledge them as a highly skilled technical expert, but not really feel any warmth toward them on a personal level. This might lead to feelings of grudging admiration or even envy. On the other hand, think of someone who you have great feelings of warmth and fondness towards on a personal level and also recognise that they are highly competent in what they do. This might lead to feelings of admiration and pride. Lastly, and in the worst case scenario, you might not have particular feelings of warmth toward an individual but equally not regard them as being particularly competent. This might lead to feelings of disgust or disdain.

The way we evaluate people on the basis of perceived warmth and competence can apply equally to fictional characters and even brands. Figure 5 shows the images of some well-known fictional characters. What is your visceral reaction to each of these characters? How might you rate each of them in terms of warmth or competence, as explained in the Stereotype Content Model of Perception?

Figure 5 Some well-known fictional characters. Top, left to right: Darth Vader, Homer Simpson, Marge Simpson. Bottom, left to right: Princess Leia, Joey from Friends Fictional characters Darth Vader, Homer Simpson, Marge Simpson, Princess Leia and Joey from Friends.

While there is no one right answer – they are fictional characters after all – it might be worth reflecting on how you responded to each. Some typical responses might be as follows:Darth Vader – low warmth and high competenceHomer Simpson – high warmth and low competence, or low warmth and low competenceMarge Simpson – high warmth and high competencePrincess Leia – high warmth and high competence or low warmth and high competenceJoey from Friends – high warmth and low competence.Curiously, as you have heard, research has found that this model of perception also applies to our engagement with brands. You might wish to think of some well-known brands with which you are familiar – how would you engage with them?A key lesson – for individuals, for organisations, and for individuals as representatives of organisations – is that, whether we like it or not, people will always develop a perception of us based on an evaluation of their warmth of feelings towards us or their perception of our competence. While we might strive to overcome this, the recognition that this happens on a deep, visceral level is crucial.Leading neuroscientist Shane O’Mara makes the point that, beyond simply assessing people based on our perception of their relative warmth and competence, this same cognitive process helps us to allocate roles and positions to people within a group. As O’Mara puts it:Think about the first time you walked in to a group of people that you didn’t know. Quickly, people rank each other as leaders, as followers, as wise voices, as slightly off-beam, along all sorts of dimensions, and we do this rapidly and quickly.(O’Mara, 2017, p. 85)The implications of this for leaders at all levels of an organisation are significant. On the one hand, it is critical that you are aware of both the conscious and subconscious assessments that you are constantly making of others; on the other, you should also be aware of the assessments that others are making of you. In each case, these might or might not be entirely correct – as the old saying ‘Don’t judge a book by its cover’ would suggest – but they happen nonetheless.It’s time to end the myth of the complete leader: the flawless person at the top who’s got it all figured out. … Only when leaders come to see themselves as incomplete – as having both strengths and weaknesses – will they be able to make up for their missing skills by relying on others.(Ancona et al., 2007, pp. 92, 94)These days, traditional ‘command and control’ leadership is no longer enough. The world is too complex, organisations are too big and the range of situations in which people might find themselves is simply too diverse for one person to manage. One way of addressing this is through the practice of distributed leadership, sometimes known as shared or collaborative leadership.The idea of distributed leadership first emerged in an educational context but has subsequently spread to other areas including the NHS and policing. It builds upon the realisation that the leader of any organisation cannot be everywhere and do everything. If you think about a typical school, this makes sense: while the teachers are busy in their classrooms, ‘leading’ their pupils and making decisions about their learning, well-being and behaviour, the principal or head teacher is elsewhere, making sure that the school is properly managed overall. While they might check in from time to time, they cannot and should not be in every classroom, managing and controlling the activities of the teachers. To do so would be unnecessary and, frankly, impossible.In a similar vein, the constables in a local policing team must be in a position to make real-time decisions based on what they see and understand on the ground. Their senior officer must be kept informed, of course, but they might be several miles away at the local police station, dealing with a myriad of other pressing issues. They cannot simply step in to engage with every question that arises on the street corner.So what does distributed leadership mean in practice? As Dr Alma Harris, a leading educationalist and theorist, explains:Distributed leadership is primarily concerned with the practice of leadership rather than specific leadership roles or responsibilities. It equates with shared, collective and extended leadership practice that builds the capacity for change and improvement …When distributed leadership works well, individuals are accountable and responsible for their leadership actions; new leadership roles created, collaborative teamwork is the modus operandi and inter-dependent working is a cultural norm. Distributed leadership is about collective influence – it is not just some accidental by-product of high-performing organisations.(Harris, 2014)But what are the practical implications of this for leaders seeking to develop a greater degree of distributed leadership within their teams or the community? Harris continues:In very practical terms, to be most effective, distributed leadership has to be carefully planned and deliberately orchestrated. It won’t just happen and if it does, there is no guarantee that it will have any positive impact. Letting a thousand flowers bloom is not distributed leadership.The implication for those in formal leadership roles is that they have a key role to play in creating the conditions for distributed leadership to occur. They have to create the opportunities for others to lead.(Harris, 2014)Beyond creating the opportunities for others to lead, as Harris suggests, leaders must be sure to create an effective team culture which supports a distributed approach to leadership. Key to this is the establishment of a clear purpose and an effective team culture integrating critical practices such as empowerment.The concept of culture can be understood in many ways. It is often one of those things that you recognise when you see it yet can be problematic to define clearly.Perhaps the most straightforward definition of culture is that proposed by Deal and Kennedy (1982), who asserted that culture is ‘the way we do things around here’.Intuitively this might make sense. You might know, for example, that titles for ranks or positions should be used in particular situations, or that in some contexts certain dress is required. Equally, you might have an unstated routine that your team always goes for lunch together at a certain time each day and always sits at the same table. All of these things are aspects of culture.Yet the very simplicity of this definition masks the underlying complexity of organisational or community culture. Culture can exist at different levels and in different ways within an organisation, or the community, or the people they serve, relating to a range of both tangible and intangible elements, as the iceberg model of culture developed by Edgar Schein, shown in Figure 6, demonstrates.

Figure 6 Schein’s iceberg model of culture The diagram shows an iceberg at sea with the sea level only allowing a small amount of the iceberg to be visible above water.Three levels are noted:Above water and fully visible: Artefacts – Tangible manifestations of culture.At water level so partly visible: Values – Ethical statements of rightness.Below the water line and so invisible or unseen: Basic assumptions – Unconscious and taken for granted ways of seeing the world.

Schein’s iceberg model (Schein, 1992) is useful in that it illustrates that some cultural aspects of an organisation are visible while some are hidden and difficult for outsiders or even new members of an organisation to interpret. Examples of visible cultural aspects include written documents – strategic plans, job descriptions and disciplinary procedures. Less visible, however, are a culture’s values, beliefs and norms, which can be much harder to identify and interpret. The key to Schein’s model is that, through analysing the three levels shown in Figure 6, a better understanding of the different components of culture in organisations can be achieved.

One of the most important factors influencing the culture of a team – and, for that matter, of an organisation – is its leader. The leader’s influence can be both overt – for example, by publicly recognising those people demonstrating the desired behaviours – or less obvious, which might include demonstrating those fundamental beliefs and assumptions which are felt to be shared by all members. This hints at a very important underlying aspect of leadership and culture: that leaders play a key role not just in creating and changing culture but also in maintaining it (Trice and Beyer, 1991)With particular reference to the culture of policing organisations, Angela Workman-Stark, a former senior member of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, highlights the way in which different subcultures can develop within different departments and at different grades within policing organisations.In policing, different cultures may arise across functions and teams … However, distinctions by rank or level within the organization continue to represent the more prominent descriptions of cultures in policing.(Workman-Stark, 2017, p. 24)When culture is considered across ranks or levels, Workman-Stark highlights the differences as follows:In contrast to the street cop culture, which is focused on the immediate aspects of the job and the risks of the street, the middle management culture is more concerned with management functions and acts as a buffer between patrol officers and upper management. In turn, the top command is consumed with the politics of managing police organizations and being accountable to external stakeholders. (Workman-Stark, 2017, p. 25)So what sort of culture should you seek to develop?Looking beyond the various subcultures that can emerge, it is worth considering what the positive characteristics of a culture might look like. Unfortunately for anyone in a leadership role, there is no single ideal culture which can be aspired to; cultures are by definition very context-specific and rely on the particular needs of an organisation, its people and those it serves. This is one of the reasons why cultural change can be so difficult.American psychologist Carol Dweck (2017) provided an interesting perspective on culture, arguing that the way we approach challenges and opportunities very much depends on our ‘mindset’. This is described in greater detail by Knell and O’Mara (2017) as follows:Your mindset is the characteristic way you face challenges and adversity: as opportunities to learn and grow, even from failure (a ‘growth’ or ‘incremental’ mindset), or by retreating to safety, and being wary of failure (a fixed ‘mindset’). Mindsets manifest themselves in how you talk to yourself (‘I can’t do that, because …’ or ‘I’d like to try that, because …’), and in your behaviour (going forward to the challenge, with a determination to learn, or avoiding the challenge because of fears about the stigma of failure).(Knell and O’Mara, 2017, p. 10)Research has also found that, rather than simply relating to individuals, mindsets also exist on an organisational level and are reflective of an underlying culture.An organization’s mindset is the belief that it and its workforce have about the nature of talent and ability. … Some companies foster a fixed mindset ‘culture of genius,’ in which talent is worshipped. This type of organizational culture asserts that employees either have it or they don’t, when it comes to skills and learning capabilities. Other organizations, however, foster a growth mindset ‘culture of development.’ This type of organizational culture asserts that people can grow and improve with effort, good strategies, and good mentoring. Culture-of-development organizations foster growth mindset, actively seeking to stretch their employees and promote new skills.(Senn-Delaney, 2014)This same research has found that organisations with a growth-mindset culture tend to perform better than those with a fixed-mindset culture and are better able to cope with challenge, change and adversity. There are consequently important lessons here for leaders (in terms of how they approach the challenges facing them), their team and organisations like the police in working with the community.Activity 7 Developing an effective team cultureAllow approximately 10 minutesIn the following video, former Olympian Lady Mary Peters talks about the challenges of developing an effective team culture and, most particularly, the role of a leader in this process.As you are watching, reflect on your own experience and understanding of team culture and the role that team leaders have played. Make some notes about your own experience of positive and less positive team cultures and the impact that this had on performance within the team. Video 2 Former Olympian Lady Mary Peters discusses developing an effective team culture MARY PETERS: It's working together- enjoying the experience, but working together for the mutual end. I think if you give your trust to other people- like I was patron of the World Police and Fire Games. And we got people from all backgrounds and all cultures to come together to make that a success. And we had the police, the prison officers, firemen and women, and people from 70 countries around the world. And it's still talked about with such affection. So it's a change in the mindset. If people have a desire to allow it to change, it will happen, but they need encouragement. You've got to be positive and bring people with you. And if you have a team leader who has those qualities, it will happen and work. And if somebody is being negative on the side, you bring them with you. You explain to them why you're doing certain things, and their culture and their habits will change.

There is no one simple answer to this activity – everyone’s experience will be different although, if you were to discuss this with colleagues, you may well find you have identified similar ideas. Reflecting on any similarities or even differences can help you to understand the perspectives of others and act as an important bridge towards a shared and effective team culture. This is not so much about ignoring differences but rather recognising that different perspectives are a natural component of all teams.

It’s not the tools that you have faith in – tools are just tools. They work, or they don’t work. It’s people you have faith in or not.(Steve Jobs in Goodell, 1994) A key element of an effective culture that supports distributed leadership, a growth-mindset culture and leadership at every level within an organisation or community, is empowerment. Empowerment can be understood as a reflection of increased motivation ‘resulting from an individual’s positive orientation to his or her work’ (Bowditch and Buono, 2005, p. 222).There are two basic forms of empowerment, each of which can play a critical role in the success of an organisation:structural empowermentpsychological empowerment.Structural empowerment relates to the extent to which people are empowered to make decisions within the scope of their job. It implicitly assumes, therefore, that power and decision making are shared through an organisation, most particularly by managers with their teams. To be successful, structural empowerment relies on participative decision making and an open flow of information up and down the chain of command within an organisation, or backwards and forwards between the police and communities.Psychological empowerment, on the other hand, relates to the beliefs that people hold about their job and employer. It is very much about how people view their organisation and the extent to which they identify with the organisation and its mission. In organisations with high levels of psychological empowerment, people are encouraged toidentify with the purpose and values of the organisationdevelop their self-belief in their competence to carry out their job and their ability to impact on organisational outcomes.Additionally, in organisations with high levels of psychological empowerment, individual autonomy over how work tasks are completed is fostered.Critically, these two forms of empowerment are not mutually exclusive and can (and do!) reinforce each other.Activity 8 Quiz: How empowered are you?Allow approximately 10 minutesIn this activity, you are required to complete a poll designed to gauge how empowered you actually feel in your own work or community context. The results of the poll will also help to shed light on your understanding of the different forms empowerment can take. (People can be more empowered in some aspects of their professional life than others.) The goal of the poll is to provide you with a personal snapshot of your own level of empowerment that you can then reflect on with others.Think about your current or most recent job or role within a community organisation. Indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree with each statement. (You can download a copy of this poll if you wish to mark up your answers.) PDF version here

	Strongly disagree	Disagree	Neither agree nor disagree	Agree	Strongly agree
I am involved in decisions that affect my work.	1	2	3	4	5
Decisions are made at the lowest appropriate level.	1	2	3	4	5
I am not closely supervised at work.	1	2	3	4	5
I can decide how I perform my work tasks.	1	2	3	4	5
I am easily able to access all the information I need to perform my work tasks.	1	2	3	4	5
Information flows freely up and down the hierarchy of my organisation.	1	2	3	4	5
I can suggest improvements to work processes.	1	2	3	4	5
I feel my opinions about how best to perform my work tasks are listened to.	1	2	3	4	5
My manager is more concerned with my output than with how I do my job.	1	2	3	4	5
I can influence the goals and objectives of my job.	1	2	3	4	5

Add up your scores for each item to see your total score out of 50. In this poll, the higher your score, the more you are empowered within your current role or community position. You might wish to reflect on this and consider what it is that makes you feel so empowered. Is it the opportunities you have or perhaps your role and title? Or are you empowered by being given permission – whether implicit or explicit – to take responsibility?Looking beyond outcomes for individuals, why should organisations and leaders care about empowerment? There are a number of different perspectives on this.Recent research by Lee, Willis and Tian (2018) found a number of important implications for leaders that can stem from taking a more empowering approach.First, empowering leaders are much more effective at influencing employee creativity and citizenship behavior (i.e., behavior that is not formally recognized or rewarded like helping coworkers or attending work functions that aren’t mandatory) than routine task performance. Second, by empowering their employees, these leaders are also more likely to be trusted by their subordinates, compared to leaders who do not empower their employees.(Lee, Willis and Tian, 2018)In a similar vein, Armstrong (2012, p. 396) observes that leaders highlight a number of important reasons for taking an empowerment-based approach to leadership.It engenders greater trust, fairness and openness in the workplace.It leads to more harmonious relationships and conflict is resolved through ‘win-win’ approaches.It supports greater employee engagement.Employees are treated as stakeholders.Employees are more committed to the interests of the organisation.One organisation that focuses very much on empowerment is the Ritz-Carlton Hotel Group. Their approach is discussed in Box 1.Box 1: Seven advantages of employee empowermentThe Ritz-Carlton Hotel Group is famous the world over for its superior levels of customer service. Less well known, however, is the fact that they are strong advocates of employee empowerment as a way of enhancing the customer service of which they are so proud. So what do they see as the key benefits of empowerment? The following are just some of the benefits they have experienced:Employees are more accountableEmployees are more attentiveEmployees will feel more valuedEmployees will be more invested in workProblems are resolved fasterCustomers experience better serviceOrganizations are more nimble.(Ritz-Carlton Hotel Group, 2015)So how can an organisation drive greater empowerment? Bowditch and Buono (2005, p. 222) suggest four key approaches:Employees must have information on organisational performance and outcomes.Employees must be rewarded or recognised for their contributions to organisational performance.Employees must have the knowledge and skills to enable them to understand and contribute to organisational performance.Employees must be given the power to make decisions that influence work procedures and organisational direction.Activity 9 How empowered is your team?Allow approximately 30 minutesIn an earlier activity you were asked to assess your own level of empowerment. In this activity, you are required to ask yourself (or even your team!), as team-leader, how empowered your team feel that they are. You might be positively surprised, but either way the activity will provide useful feedback on your own approach to leadership.While reflecting on your empowerment can be difficult, reflecting on feedback from your own team members can be even more challenging. Nonetheless, it can be very much worth doing as a way of learning about your own impact as a leader and how you might become more effective by further empowering your team members.No man is an Island, entire of itself; every man is a piece of the Continent, a part of the main.(John Donne, 1624 (2014) Meditation XVII)Change is a seeming constant these days. Whether it is a political change, social change or organisational change, the world appears to be becoming more and more dynamic. The fixed points that we felt we could rely on are no more, and there is constant pressure on organisations and individuals to change, improve and adapt.Activity 10 What is changing in your world?Allow approximately 15 minutesThink about and note down some of the things that are changing in your world. These could relate to any of the following areas:personalworknational.What is the impact that each of these is having on you and your role as a leader?In many ways change is a constant and something that might seem to be out of our immediate control. Taking a moment to step back and understand both what is changing and the impact of these changes can help us to more effectively grapple with the challenges that emerge. This is most especially so if we are able to take back a sense of control and even pre-empt or ‘get ahead’ of the changes that might be coming our way in the future.When considering change at all levels, the role of leadership cannot be ignored. Comparative research for CEPOL, the EU Agency for Law Enforcement Training, found that successful change processes in policing have several factors in common (Christe-Zeyse, 2013): They are usually originated from within the policeThe need for the change can be expressed in police termsGood leadership is critical.Whatever changes you and your organisation experience, the chances are that they will lead to a degree of volatility, uncertainty, complexity and ambiguity, or VUCA – a term which has become increasingly popular as a way of describing the changes organisations have experienced. VUCA looks at those changes in terms of how much might be known about a situation (ranging from not very much to quite a bit) and how predictable the results are from actions you might take (ranging from completely unpredictable to highly predictable).The VUCA diagram below has been completed from the perspective of a retailer experiencing change. It outlines characteristics and examples of each of the four elements of VUCA – volatility, uncertainty, complexity and ambiguity – as well as potential approaches to coping with those changes.

Figure 7 The four VUCA challenges (adapted from Bennett and Lemoine, 2014, p. 27)Figure 6 shows the VUCA diagram adapted from Bennett and Lemoine (2014). It is shown in the form of a two by two grid, with a vertical axis and a horizontal axis which do not show values but have arrows at the end of the axes to suggest that values go up, in the case of vertical, or to the right, in the case of the horizontal axis. The vertical axis is labelled ‘How much do you know about the situation?’, suggesting higher or lower knowledge, with the horizontal axis being labelled ‘How well can you predict the results of your actions?’ suggesting higher or lower predictability. The four VUCA concepts – Volatility, Uncertainty, Complexity and Ambiguity each have one square of the two by two grid, each with a list of characteristics, examples and approaches. At top left of the grid (higher knowledge, lower predictability) is ‘Complexity’. Characteristics are listed: ‘The situation has many interconnected parts and variables. Some information is available or can be predicted, but the volume or nature of it can be overwhelming to process.’ Example is listed: ‘You are doing business in many countries, all with unique regulatory environments, tariffs and cultural values.’ Approach is listed: ‘Restructure, bring on or develop specialists, and build up resources adequate to address the complexity.’ At the bottom left of the grid (lower knowledge, lower predictability) is ‘Ambiguity’. Characteristics are listed: ‘Causal relationships are completely unclear. No precedents exist; you face “unknown unknowns”.’ Example is listed: ‘You decide to move into immature or emerging markets or to launch products outside your core competencies.’ Approach is listed: ‘Experiment. Understanding cause and effect requires generating hypotheses and testing them. Design your experiments so that lessons learned can be broadly applied.’ At the top right of the grid (higher knowledge, higher predictability) is ‘Volatility’. Characteristics are listed: ‘The challenge is unexpected or unstable and may be of unknown duration, but it’s not necessarily hard to understand; knowledge about it is often available.’ Example is listed: ‘Prices fluctuate after a natural disaster takes a supplier off-line.’ Approach is listed: ‘Build in slack and devote resources to preparedness - for instance stockpile inventory or overbuy talent. These steps are typically expensive: your investment should match the risk.’ At the bottom right of the grid (lower knowledge, higher predictability) is ‘Uncertainty’. Characteristics are listed: ‘Despite a lack of other information, the event’s basic cause and effect are known. Change is possible but not a given.’ Example is listed: ‘A competitor's pending product launch muddies the future of the business and the market.’ Approach is listed: ‘Invest in information – collect, interpret and share it. This works best in conjunction with structural changes, such as adding information analysis networks that reduce ongoing uncertainty.’

Activity 11 How might VUCA events impact on you?Allow approximately 10 minutes As you reflect on the VUCA model consider the characteristics, example and approach in each quadrant. Can you envisage how these kinds of event might impact on you, your role or your organisation overall? You might wish to capture your thoughts in the box below.Considering the volatility, uncertainty, complexity and ambiguity inherent in the external environment can help you to pre-empt future challenges and also future opportunities. An awareness of the relative degrees of volatility, uncertainty, complexity and ambiguity in any one situation, and particularly changes in that situation, can help you to evaluate any steps you might need to take as a leader to better support yourself and your colleagues. To any extent, your approach to leading through change will also depend on the nature of the change taking place. Is the change emergent (i.e. ongoing and fluid or spontaneous in nature) or is it planned? Is it simply one of fine-tuning (i.e. incremental) or does it involve a significant transformation of how policing services are delivered?At the same time, however, your approach to leading through change will depend on the people within the organisation. How people respond to change can very much depend on their prior experiences and whether they are perhaps feeling ‘change fatigue’, defined by Stensaker et al. (2002, p. 298) as ‘the individual’s response of becoming disorientated or dysfunctional as a result of too much stimulation’ – or, in other words, feeling overwhelmed, exhausted and demoralised as a consequence of an ever-changing context and a perceived lack of control.Ultimately, organisational change rarely goes according to plan. Given that you can never fully isolate the effects of uncertainty and change (Dawson, 1996), the leader’s role is today more critical than ever.Activity 12 Your role as a leader in changeAllow approximately 10 minutesIn the following video, Temporary Assistant Chief Constable (T/ACC) Tim Mairs of the Police Service of Northern Ireland talks about the challenges of leading change.As you are watching, reflect on your own experience of change – whether as someone leading change, someone who has been a member of a team or organisation which has undergone change or perhaps as a service user who has had to adjust to a changing context.Make some notes about how effectively you feel the change was managed and how it might have been managed differently.Video 3 Temporary Assistant Chief Constable Tim Mairs discusses the challenges of leading change TIM MAIRS: I think there's probably a couple of things that really define effective change to me. One is ownership. So it's not just something that is owned by the people who want to see the change happen, it's something that other people are bought into, it's something that other people feel that they've had an opportunity to structure. I think a key part to that is communication. So being able to have those difficult conversations, but in doing that, make people aware of the need for change, and constantly updating them on an awful lot of issues, particularly, sometimes, the really minor hygiene factors. Because at the end of the day, sometimes the biggest things that concern us are those things that affect our everyday life. Where does my desk sit? Where am I getting changed in the morning? Which station or office am I going to work from? So constant communication. I don't think there's any such thing as overcommunication. And the last big bit for me is stickability, that when we decide to change, we have to be disciplined about that, and we have to see that change through. And an awful lot of change processes, I think, fail because we just lose energy after the initial burst. So I could well believe that statistic. I think because sometimes- or I'd say in a lot of cases- we don't do the legwork at the start. So we don't really research what the problems are and we don't really effectively research what the best solutions are. I think, secondly, we then fail to communicate the reasons for change, and ensure a really broad base of buy-in from people. And I think, thirdly, we fail to have the discipline, then, around delivering those changes. Sometimes that involves governance, and it involves things like paperwork, and it involves discipline that the likes of the PRINCE2 project management process brings for us. Often, dynamic people and dynamic organisations like policing tend to be very uncomfortable with that kind of structure and governance, but it's absolutely critical when you're trying to deliver quite complex change over a sustained period of time. And I think, often, that lack of attention to discipline is where a lot of us fall down. Absolutely not. And to me, some of the greatest change leaders have been people at all levels within the organisation. And I think it's a critical point to make that, actually, when you get into your process of change, you absolutely have to have people bought in at every single level. And I think you really see success in an organisation when change is led from the front line. And particularly in policing, we have leaders at every level. When you turn up at the scene of a road traffic collision and it's in chaos, you're a leader. You're leading people at that stage. And people look to you for guidance and for direction. And it's those sort of skills that we need to harness to actually drive change at the front line. I think when people in an organisation feel that change is something being done to them, that's almost pushing it into that 70% category. When people feel that change is something that's happening, and they have a sense of ownership and investment in it, then that's where you see really effective change, and that's when you can move towards continuous change and continuous evolution of an organisation. So I think the three big things are communicate, communicate, and then finally, when you've done that, keep communicating. It's really important to explain to your people why we're getting into this change, to have that opportunity to talk about the challenges and the benefits, to allow people to buy into that and shape the change. But also, really, really critically, at the heart of it, is having that one-to-one conversation with people about what does this mean for me personally. Because in many cases, that fear and that sense of concern about change comes from, how is this going to impact my life? And when you can engage on a one-to-one level and get people a sense of confidence that their needs and concerns are at the heart of the change process, that undoubtedly makes it a far smoother and simpler process.

As T/ACC Mairs highlights, leading change can be both challenging and difficult. Nonetheless, there are times when we all need to adjust to a changing context and it is in these situations that leadership skills are required. For leaders, the challenge is two-fold: first, leaders must be able to recognise and themselves work with a changing context; second, leaders must be able to draw upon a repertoire of leadership skills and employ them appropriately depending on the needs of the situation and their team. Yet, more than just a challenge, this is an opportunity for individuals at all levels to really step up to leadership.In this course you have examined the question of leadership. You learned that, when considering leadership, a key point to remember is that ‘being a leader’ is less about position, rank or title and more about behaviours and attitudes. You learned that leaders are found at all levels within organisations, and that it is up to each individual to decide how they are going to step up to leadership.Ancona, D., Malone, T., Orlikowski, W. and Senge, P. (2007) ‘In Praise of the Incomplete Leader’, Harvard Business Review, vol. 85, no. 2, pp. 92–100 [Online]. Available at https://hbr.org/2007/02/in-praise-of-the-incomplete-leader (Accessed 17 April 2019).Armstrong, M. (2012) Armstrong’s Handbook of Human Resource Management Practice, 12th edn, London, Kogan Page.Bennet, N. and Lemoine, G. (2014) ‘What VUCA Really Means for You’, Harvard Business Review, January–February [Online]. Available at https://hbr.org/2014/01/what-vuca-really-means-for-you (Accessed 17 April 2019).Bowditch, J. L. and Buono, A. F. (2005) A Primer on Organizational Behaviour, 6th edn, Hoboken, NJ, Wiley.Christe-Zeyse, J. (2013) ‘Effective Change Management in the Police: Insights From a European Research Project’ [Online]. 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New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Flynn, E. A. and Herrington, V. (2015) ‘Towards a Profession of Police Leadership’, pp. 1–18, US Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice [Online]. Available at https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/248573.pdf (Accessed 17 Apriil 2019).Goodell, J. (1994) ‘Steve Jobs in 1994: The Rolling Stone Interview’, Rolling Stone, 17 January [Online]. Available at https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/culture-news/steve-jobs-in-1994-the-rolling-stone-interview-231132/ (Accessed 17 April 2019). Handy, C. (1992) ‘The Language Of Leadership’ in Syrett, D. (ed.) Frontiers of Leadership, Oxford, Blackwell.Harris, A. (2014) ‘Distributed Leadership’, Teacher, 29 September [Online]. Available at https://www.teachermagazine.com.au/articles/distributed-leadership (Accessed 17 April 2019).Hersey, P. and Blanchard, K. (1969) ‘Life cycle theory of leadership’, Training and Development Journal, vol. 23, pp. 26–34.Knell, L. and O’Mara, S. 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(2013) ‘Police leadership: A systematic review of the literature’, Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 14–26.Ritz-Carlton Hotel Group (2015) ‘Seven Advantages of Employee Empowerment’ [Online]. Available at http://ritzcarltonleadershipcenter.com/2015/11/seven-advantages-of-employee-empowerment/ (Accessed 17 April 2019).Schafer, J. A. (2009) ‘Developing effective leadership in policing: perils, pitfalls, and paths forward’, Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, vol. 32, no. 2, pp. 238–260.Schein, E. (1992) Organizational culture and leadership, San Francisco, Jossey-Bass. Senn-Delaney (2014) Stanford organisational mindset study findings. Available at http://knowledge.senndelaney.com/docs/thought_papers/pdf/ stanford_agilitystudy_hart.pdf (Accessed 21 April, 2018). Stensaker, I., Falkenberg, J., Meyer, C. B. and Haueng, A. C. (2002) ‘Excessive change: coping mechanisms and consequences’, Organizational Dynamics, vol. 31, no. 3, pp. 296–312.Trice, H. M. and Beyer, J. M. (1991) ‘Cultural leadership in organizations’, Organization Science, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 149–169.Workman-Stark, A. L. (2017) Inclusive Policing from the Inside Out, New York, NY, Springer.This free course was written by Laurence Knell. It was first published in November 2019. Except for third party materials and otherwise stated (see terms and conditions), this content is made available under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 Licence.The material acknowledged below is Proprietary and used under licence (not subject to Creative Commons Licence). Grateful acknowledgement is made to the following sources for permission to reproduce material in this free course: Course image: courtesy of Police Service Northern IrelandActivity 5:Bill Gates: Chesnot / Getty ImagesNelson Mandela: Thomas Imo/Photothek via Getty ImagesTaylor Swift: Steve Granitz/WireImage via Getty ImagesNorman Foster: Samuel de Roman/WireImage via Getty ImagesMichelle Obama: Monica Schipper; Getty ImagesAngela Merkel: Omer Messinger / StringerActivity 6 Figure 5:Darth Vader: Ann E. Parry/Alamy Stock PhotoHomer Simpson: Entertainment Pictures/ Alamy Stock PhotoMarge Simpson: Everett Collection/ Alamy Stock PhotoPrincess Leia: AF Archive/Alamy Stock PhotoJoey from Friends: ZUMA Press, Inc/Alamy Stock PhotoFigure 6: From: Introducing Organisation behaviour and management, Knights, D. and Willmott, H. © 2007, Thomson Learning.Activity 8:How Empowered Are You? poll – courtesy of Dr. Peter BloomActivity 10:Figure 7: Adapted from Bennett and Lemoine, 2014: Bennet, N. and Lemoine, G. (2014) ‘What VUCA Really Means for You’, Harvard Business Review, January–February (Accessed 17 April 2019).Every effort has been made to contact copyright owners. If any have been inadvertently overlooked, the publishers will be pleased to make the necessary arrangements at the first opportunity.Don’t miss outIf reading this text has inspired you to learn more, you may be interested in joining the millions of people who discover our free learning resources and qualifications by visiting The Open University – www.open.edu/openlearn/free-courses.

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