Brainstorm ideas using imagery and other visual meansConvey my personal impressions or understanding without being constrained by conventional forms of expression (or lack of language skills)
Before the analysis stage in an intervention to:Bring out stakeholders’ general impressions of a situation; andBuild confidence amongst stakeholders to engage with further discussions (e.g. as a form of purposeful ‘ice-breaking’)
Activity 1 What is a rich picture?Click on ‘View’ to watch the animation.
Animation 1
Page 1Peter Checkland introduced rich pictures for use in the early stages of his Soft Systems Methodology.Page 2They are possibly the most important, and probably the least popular, of the systems diagram types.Page 3They address the state of unknowing that a group or individual is in at the beginning of an exploration or inquiry.Page 4They’re a vehicle for moving from this state of messy confusion, where all you know is that you’re dealing with a problematic situation, to a state where you’ve identified one or more themes that – as a group or individual – you want to address.In the Soft Systems Methodology, these themes are then refined and defined as systems of interest for further exploration in various ways.Page 5To work with rich pictures you need to have lots of big sheets of plain paper…And lots of big coloured pens.Page 6Then you simply draw what you see happening in the situation.You don’t have to be good at drawing – ‘pin’ men will do.Page 7But you do need to show all that you perceive as problematic or significant – emotions and relationships as well as groupings and connections of various sorts.Page 8A rich picture can cope with any sort of chaos. It happily receives whatever chaotic mess of thoughts and perceptions pours down your arm from your brain, out of the pen in your hand and onto the page.Page 9For many students, the value of rich pictures is only revealed once they start using them in a group.One of the difficulties of thinking and learning about a messy situation is that different people in the situation have different perceptions of and assumptions about what is going on.Looking at each other’s pictures is an effective way of revealing these differences because they express things you wouldn’t think of saying.Page 10And sometimes they allow you to say in a simple and unthreatening way things it might have seemed rude or frivolous to articulate.Page 11Standing back to look at your own rich picture – and perhaps discussing it with others - can help you to see things you might otherwise have missed: connections, traps, possibilities, contradictions, and so on.Page 12It can be hard to face other people’s often surprisingly different assumptions, because this makes us question our own assumptions, which can be demanding and unsettling. It can mean throwing away the solutions we thought we had, going back to the beginning and starting afresh.But that’s often exactly what is needed at the start of a systemic inquiry…Page 13One of the reasons people find rich pictures difficult is that they try to convert ideas they’ve already verbalised into visual symbols.But the benefit of rich pictures is in revealing thoughts you haven’t already had, and in saying things you haven’t already said.Jake Chapman, who uses rich pictures with groups of highly articulate public policy makers, suggests the following trick to get around this problem:Before asking the group to start drawing, he gets them to write down – in words – everything they already think about the situation. The things they always say about it. The things they’ve already articulated. These thoughts are valuable, but the desire to express them can get in the way of doing the simpler thing: just drawing what you ‘see’ happening in the situation.Page 14In order to learn something new, you have to go through a state of unknowing. You have to accept that there are things you don’t already know.So you might say that there’s something brave and heroic about using rich pictures. Going into unknown territory – into the dark.Click on What is a rich picture to see the description of the animated tutorial.Spray diagram
I will use this type of diagramming
… when I want to:
Examples of use
R distal incident eight and I got a dialling epresent the outcome of an initial brainstorming session in a more structured wayIdentify the main components (or characteristic key words) of the issue I am interested in
To take notes, order thoughts and explore links around, e.g. a briefing document, book, journal article, lecture, seminar or other group discussionTo express a complex issue by representing its general characteristics in a simple way
Activity 2 What is a spray diagram?Click on ‘View’ to watch the animation.
Animation 2
Page 1Spray diagrams are very widely used as a thinking tool. They can be used in a number of different ways: for thinking about a topic from scratch rather like a structured sort of brainstorming; for taking notes; and for setting out the structure of an argument.Page 2Spray diagrams can be valuable both as a product and as a process.Page 3The process of constructing a spray diagram can help you to integrate and structure large amounts of material; for example, from a number of different documents or interviews. The process can help you to untangle the argument in a complex or badly written document. You can use a spray diagram to organise material into a structure, either to clarify your understanding, or as the basis for a report or presentation.Page 4The product - the spray diagram you end up with - can be used as a communication tool perhaps to give an overview during a presentation, or to allow you to share your mental map of a situation as you discuss it with others.The diagram can be a useful reference - a record of information you might later need. Personally I find spray diagrams very useful as a memory aid. It’s as if they capture my understanding of a situation in the form that is laid down in my brain. The diagram acts like a key to the memory, bringing back not just what is written in the diagram, but also my memory of the ideas and details I associated with the points in the diagram at the time I drew it. Perhaps this is why spray diagrams are sometimes referred to as mind maps.Page 5As you can see, the form of a spray diagram is very simple. Just lines, and words at the nodes where the lines join. No arrows.Page 6Occasionally people write along the lines, rather than at the ends of them, or use colour for emphasis.Page 7It’s a good idea to circle the topic or central idea that the diagram sprays out from. Some people also find it useful to circle other key nodes on the diagram.Page 8One thing which makes spray diagramming easier than other types of diagramming is that you don't have to think about the nature of the connection between two nodes joined by a line. The line simply means that in your mind there is some association.Page 9Fanning in, to show connections between different branches of a diagram, is sometimes frowned on, perhaps because it might inhibit your flow of thinking if you're using the diagram as a way of brainstorming. Personally I sometimes find it useful to fan in, particularly when exploring the structure of an argument, because a good argument will often make connections between the reasoning of different lines of argument.Page 10Like rich pictures, spray diagrams are often used in the early stages of an analysis. People have different preferences.Some people find it very difficult to plunge into a rich picture, perhaps if they're less graphically minded, so they find a spray diagram a good place to assemble their initial ideas before sketching them.Others believe that drawing a spray diagram can limit your understanding of a situation by requiring you to impose a hierarchical structure which may later constrain you to see the situation in this particular way, while a rich picture can capture ideas without constraining them.Page 11As well as depending on personal preference, it can depend very much on the type of exploration you're undertaking. A rich picture can be better for capturing impressions which don't readily or entirely translate into words. A spray diagram can be better for capturing material which someone else has already put into words, perhaps especially print, where words are the sole means of communication.Page 12A spray diagram may provide material you wish to explore further in a systems map or multiple cause diagram.Page 13Sometimes spray diagrams are referred to as tree diagrams or mind maps. They're also similar to concept maps.Page 14Spray diagrams often look very messy while you're drawting them, and you can go through numerous drafts as you think of better ways to structure your ideas into related groupings, and as space becomes needed for new ideas. It’s often worth producing a final draft which makes the tree-like structure clear, so that it can easily be read at a glance.I find that setting out the structure clearly on paper helps me to see it clearly in my head. It’s not that it’s the right structure - there are always many possible structures - it’s more that the structure is a sort of container for the ideas, so that they're remembered and understood, rather than lost in the distant corners of my brain. Like a container, the structure constrains the shape that the ideas take. So at the same time as helping you to reach an understanding, the structure can also limit understanding.Page 15Finally, remember that spray diagramming can help you to develop a very important skill; that of constructing a coherent argument from a set of related but initially unstructured ideas.Click on What are spray diagrams to see the description of the animated tutorial.Systems map
I will use this type of diagramming
… when I want to:
Examples of use
Identify conceptual or biophysical boundaries placed around a particular issueIdentify elements outside that boundary which might be significantExplore the significance of changing where the boundary is placed
To explore and possibly challenge existing or proposed boundary judgementsTo provide an initial stakeholder analysis (i.e. those involved = groups inside the boundary; those affected = outside the boundary).
Activity 3 What is a systems map?Click on ‘View’ to watch the animation.
Animation 3
Page 1Like other systems diagram types, systems maps are used as thinking tools. They can also be used as communication tools. Systems maps have a very simple form, consisting of blobs and words, and they’re used to show the structure of a system of interest at a point in time. They show this structure as a hierarchy of groupings.Page 2If I regard this session as a system for telling you about systems maps, then I might use a systems map to plan the session, and also to show you the structure of what I’m going to cover.Page 3Here’s the boundary of the system - in this case this session on systems maps. Inside the boundary will be the things I’m going to cover.Page 4But my thinking about the system is likely to include other things too, like the way I’m going to cover it, the examples and ideas I have to draw on, the way I ask you to interact with the session, and how I’m going to construct it. These might all be thought of as sub-systems of my system of interest.Page 5Outside the boundary will be things that are not part of the system. This might include things I’m not going to cover. For example, I’m not going to talk about the history of systems maps, or describe similar forms such as Venn diagrams; and I’m not going to discuss the process of drawing a systems map as this is covered in a later session.Page 6In a systems map, the region beyond the boundary is known as the environment of the system. Components in the environment are not part of the system, but they may influence it, so it can be important to consider them. For example, your prior knowledge of systems maps - or of similar diagram forms, is likely to influence how you respond to this session.Page 7Now the bit I want to focus on is this sub-system, so I’m going to go down a level in my hierarchy of groupings. If I were working on paper, this would mean starting a new sheet.Page 8In this session I want to talk about the purpose of systems maps - what they do, why this is useful, and when it is useful.Page 9I want to cover their form, and what makes a good systems map.Page 10And I want to draw your attention to a number of key systems concepts associated with systems maps.Page 11This makes me realise that I’ve got too much to cover in one session, and I’ll need to cover some of it in a second session.Page 12I said at the start that systems maps show the structure of a system of interest at a point in time. And that they show this structure as a hierarchy of groupings. You’ve seen how these groupings are shown, and just now you saw me move down a level in the hierarchy of groupings from the top level of my system, to look in more detail at a sub-system. In the next session you’ll be able to move up and down the levels of this hierarchy, and click on the blobs that require further explanation.Page 13But what exactly is meant by structure? You can use a systems map to model an existing explicit structure - for example if you were trying to understand an existing hierarchy within a complex organisation. But a more powerful way of using systems maps is to create a new mental model, one that names and groups components according to the purpose you have in mind - not just components that are ‘out there’ and that anyone can see, but any type of thing that you think it’s important to consider.Page 14This enables you to structure your thinking about the system, and to discuss it with others. It’s like a map of the system. Systems maps show only structure, so once you start thinking about the processes that occur in this territory - about relationships, sequence, influence, cause and effect - then you need to go on to a different diagram type which shows connections between these components.Click on What is a systems map to see the description of the animated tutorial.3 Using diagramming techniques to explore the WWPDiagramming techniques can be used to address some of the questions that might arise as you read the summary:How can I make sense of the issues and the context in which the programme is being implemented?What are the main elements associated with WWP and what are the broad associations or relationships between these elements?How can I look in more detail at the structure of the WWP? What elements (e.g., stakeholder groups) might be needed to implement the WWP? What other elements might lie outside the boundary of the WWP but might be very relevant to success or failure of the programme? What value might there be in focussing at different levels of interest (e.g. an individual WWP project, or more generalised strategies of agricultural development)?How can I identify the factors that are key in building on the success of WWP?What might support the continued success of WWP − or act as an obstacle? Where might an intervention take place and resources be deployed in order to encourage success and/or lessen any such obstacles?What decisions need to be made in order to sustain the success of WWP? What might be the implications of such decisions and what assumptions are being made regarding previous decision making?3.1 Rich picturesDefinitionRich pictures are a compilation of drawings, pictures, symbols and text that represent a particular situation or issue from the viewpoint(s) of the person or people who drew them.Rich pictures can show relationships, connections, influences, cause and effect. They can also show more subjective elements such as character and characteristics as well as points of view, prejudices, spirit and human nature.Rich pictures can both record and evoke insight into a situation. They can be regarded as pictorial 'summaries' of the physical, conceptual and emotional aspects of the situation at a given time.UseRich pictures are often used to depict complicated situations or issues. They are drawn prior to analysing a situation, when it is unclear which parts of a situation are particularly important. They help show which parts should be regarded as structure and which as process.They are an attempt to encapsulate the real points of interest in a situation through words and imagery.Rich pictures can be invaluable in communicating issues between groups of people where there are cultural or language differences. Drawings, pictures and text can provide the basis for the shared understandings needed to enable further dialogue (and perhaps further rich pictures).A rich picture offers a great deal of scope for creative thinking and freedom in how you represent your ideas. A lack of drawing skill is no drawback as symbols, icons, photographs and/or text can be used to represent different elements.Diagram componentsA rich picture can include some or all of the following elements:pictorial symbolskeywordssketchescartoonssymbolsarrows and other lines to show flows of resources and/or relationshipstitle.ConventionsInterpretation: Choose symbols, scenes or images that best represent the situation for you. Use as many colours as necessary and draw the symbols on a large piece of paper. (A3 is an ideal size; it can always be reduced down to A4 size for inclusion in any reports.Connections: Put in whatever connections you see between your pictorial symbols; note where there are no obvious connections, as this might later prove significant.Words: text can be part of any rich picture but be concise. Speech bubbles are quite a common device.Boundaries: Don't worry too much about drawing boundaries around groups of components. They can be useful to include but aren't really the main focus of this technique. (Systems maps are used to establish and investigate boundaries.)GuidelinesA rich picture is an attempt to assemble everything that might be relevant to a complex situation. (For example, as you gather data through interviews and other types of research, rich pictures might help you think about how best to represent the information.)Use words only where you cannot represent your meaning in a sketch.Place all elements on your sheet wherever it feels right to put them. Drawing elements on sticky notes can be very effective in the early stages of drawing a rich picture. You can move them around until the rich picture clearly represents the situation as you see it.Include both factual data and the subjective information.Look at the social roles that are regarded as meaningful by those involved, and look at the kinds of behaviour expected from people in those roles. If you see any conflicts, indicate them.Include yourself in the picture. Make sure that your roles and relationships in the situation are clear. Your values, beliefs and norms are important.If you don't know how to begin drawing a rich picture try the following.Look for the elements of structure in the situation; these would include parts of the situation that change relatively slowly over time and are relatively stable, e.g. the people, the set-ups, the hierarchy of authority.Look for elements of process within the situation (these are ongoing activities).Look at how the structure and the processes interact (or don't interact).Activity 4 Animated tutorial 1Watch the animated tutorial below (click on ‘View’ below) to see how I built up my rich picture of the WWP. If you are still a bit unsure about what a rich picture is you might like to view the optional animation, What is a rich picture?, before viewing the WWP example.
Animation 4
When I started reading the WWP paper I immediately began to think of what pictures I could use to represent the elements of the situation presented to me. (I’ve used an eye in the rich picture to show this is how I see the programme.) With this particular case study I knew that I was at an immediate disadvantage. I was reading about a culture and natural environment unfamiliar to me, in an area of the world I’ve never visited.Page 2After a little searching on the Internet I was able to find further ideas that enabled me to start building an awareness of the imagery that I could use in a rich picture for the WWP projects.I also learnt a bit more about both the people and area described in South Africa and discovered a little more about some of the projects. This sort of research isn’t necessary to draw a rich picture; however, it made a more satisfying experience from my point of view.Page 3I then thought about what elements were important to me. After three versions the rich picture started to be a more useful diagram for my own reflection. I was interested in the reaction in South Africa to the loss of biodiversity and the ending of apartheid.Page 4I wanted to know more about the way in which the Working for Water Programme identified certain projects.Page 5Structures that started to appear were international, national and local governance. The place and role of such structures would benefit from further exploration by different kinds of diagram, such as systems maps or influence and multiple cause diagrams.Structures and activities associated with social welfare and commercial aspects of saleable goods produced by black South Africans was also a significant area of interest for me.Page 6I was also interested in the development and support for some communities in the 240 projects as they tackled the ecosystem restoration – I asked myself what would these emerging communities be like?This is my rich picture of WWP, seen from my point of view and personal background. Your own rich picture might be very different to mine. However, sharing and comparing rich pictures of a situation can be a useful way to promote discussion and improve understanding between people with different backgrounds and standpoints.SummaryWrite a title for the situation of interest that you wish to explore.Represent stable structures associated with the situation using imagery and possibly text.Represent processes associated with the situation using imagery and possibly text.Show how structures and processes might interact or not interact.Include yourself and relevant personal experiences in the rich picture.List key themes from your drawing that might be of interest for further enquiry.Click on rich picture to see the description of the animated tutorial.3.2 Final diagramYou may wish to refer back to the WWP case study as you work through the activity on this page.For a printable A4 size copy of this diagram, click on ‘View document’.View documentActivity 5 Rich pictureChoose one of the following:your impression of the South African Working for Water Programme; ora topic for which you have a particular interest; oran intervention that you have recently been involved with and which you found challenging (this might be work-related or home/leisure-related).Using any types of imagery and accompanying text that you think is appropriate, sketch a rich picture to show the various dimensions of your interest as you envisage it. Include any personal experiences that you feel might be relevant and important.After completing your picture, list down two or three key themes that have emerged from your drawing which you think would be of interest for further enquiry.3.3 Spray diagramDefinitionSpray diagrams show the connections between related elements or concepts associated with a particular issue. They do not show the nature of the relationship between the elements. A spray diagram can be thought of as a conceptual map of a situation or issue.UseSpray diagrams are widely used as thinking tools. They can be used in a number of different ways:for thinking about an issue from scratchto help you organize various facts, issues or ideas into a structured formfor taking notes; andfor setting out the structure of an argument.You can use a spray diagram to organize material into a basic structure, both to clarify your own understanding, or as the basis for a report or presentation. The spray diagram you create can therefore be used as a tool to give an overview of your understanding of a situation and enable you to share your understanding of a situation as you discuss it with others.ComponentsA title.Central circle or blob (irregular enclosed boundary) for main topic you are going to focus on.Blobs for sub-topics (optional, depending on importance of sub-topics).Lines branching out from topic/sub-topics.Words to identify main topics and sub-topics within the blobs.Words where lines branch or at the ends of lines.Conventions and guidelinesThe form of a spray diagram is very simple: it consists of lines, a few blobs and words at the ends of lines or where they branch. There are no arrows. It's a good idea to circle the topic or central idea that the diagram sprays out from. Some people also find it useful to circle other sub-topics on the diagram. You don't have to think about the nature of the connection between two nodes joined by a line. The line simply means that in your mind there is some association. In spray diagrams, you:express ideas in one or a few wordskeep track of the key topics or sub-topics by circling themuse lines to join up the components or concepts that appear related in some waydo not show directional links on the lines.In drawing a spray diagram the main steps are:Write down the main topic you wish to explore, leaving plenty of space round it.Identify branches from the main topic you want to explore further. Note them down and draw lines linking them to the main topic. Keep going by considering each branch in turn and ideas (new branches) that link from it.Spray diagrams can be useful to leave and add to over time as situations or arguments develop or you gain new insights.Activity 6 Animated tutorial 2Watch the animated tutorial (click on ‘View’ below) to see how I built up my spray diagram of the WWP. If you are still a bit unsure about what a spray diagram is you might like to view the optional animation, What is a spray diagram?, before viewing the WWP example.
Animation 5
Page 1In spray diagramming choosing your central theme is important. ‘Competing needs for water’ seemed like a particularly important topic to structure my understanding of the WWP from the summary. Once I’d chosen my central theme, I circled it.Page 2Constructing a spray diagram helps you understand the central theme in a systemic way. On reading about the South African WWP experience, three sub-themes of sustainability came to mind in relation to water conflicts. These were; the economic dimensions, the social and political dimensions, and the ecological dimensions.Page 3It’s often useful to keep track of your main sub-themes by putting a circle around them. Focusing on each of the three sub-themes in turn, more spray effects were made by creating primary branches of each theme. The associations you make can be of different types. These could be influences, causes, or any other type of relationship or link that you think appropriate. It might be useful to include short quotations from the text or argument being analysed.After creating the primary or direct branches from each sub-theme, I decided to branch out further to form secondary sub-branches, and further still forming sub-sub branches.There is of course a risk of continuing too far with the spraying effect. The idea is to continue until further branching into more specific areas is no longer useful for your purposes.Page 4Some of the elements of one branch might relate specifically to elements of another branch. For example, the invasive species, whilst being ecologically damaging, are also economically useful and this clearly relates to water for economic development.Similarly, the generation of employment opportunities is related to the economic and socio-political dimensions of water. I’ve only made links between elements from different branches where I consider them to be important. Too many cross linkages will result in a diagram that lacks clarity.Page 5Its crucially important that the headings are all inter-connected through the common theme of 'competing needs for water'. So, looking at this diagram, the WWP does not view the cutting down of invasive species as the sole solution to the original problem. The programme’s response to the ecological damage appears to be quite systemic. It addresses the various economic, ecological and political dimensions of water needs together.Page 6Looking at the final diagram, if you had to describe WWP to someone unfamiliar with the programme what structural features would you emphasise? Which structural features aren’t represented well enough on the diagram? How might you improve it?SummaryStart with a key idea and circle it.Identify the sub-topics that are directly related to the central topic.Circle the key sub-topics and link them to the main topic with lines.Identify issues related to the sub-topics and link them with the sub-topic with lines.Build up the sub-branches as far as you think is useful.Click on spray diagram to see the description of the animated tutorial.3.4 Final diagramYou may wish to refer back to the WWP case study as you work through the activity on this page.For a printable A4 size copy of diagram, click on ‘View document’.View documentActivity 7 Spray diagramChoose one of the following.Re-read the South African Working for Water Programme case study and construct your own spray diagram. Choose a main topic on which to structure or hang your sub-topics and associated branches. How does your spray diagram differ from the one presented in the tutorial? What further clarifications and insights are offered in your own spray diagram?Keep this diagram handy as you work through the other tutorials. It can act as a useful aide memoir of your understanding of the WWP.After skimming the text to get a general sense of the subject matter covered, go through it again but this time constructing a spray diagram on a sheet of scrap paper.Begin your diagram with a central theme or topic to which the article or reading relates (you ought to be able to identify this through a combination of the title and your initial quick review of the reading). Identify the topics and sub-topics, drawing lines between parts that relate to each other.As this isn't a diagram that you'll be sharing with others, don't worry too much about the messiness of the final outcome, and feel free to annotate various parts of the diagram where you feel questions arise or issues are not clearly expressed.From your final spray diagram list down what you consider to be the key arguments associated with the reading, and your own responses to them. These represent the structural features of the reading.3.5 Systems mapsDefinitionA systems map is a snapshot of a system and its environment at a given time.Note that 'system' has a specialized meaning here. It is the term used to describe any situation or issue you want to explore. It is what you are interested in investigating and hence is known as the system of interest. A system of interest is separated from its environment by a boundary. Boundaries also exist between components of a system ( or sub-systems).A system of interest (SoI) is defined by its purpose. The purpose thus represents the general boundary of a system. The components of a systems map are therefore related to each other as if they collectively fulfil that purpose. Examples of a SoI could include an entity like an organization or an activity like planning an intervention.A systems map shows how themes or elements might be grouped together as components of the specified SoI or as elements in the environment of the SoI. Some components might be grouped together (or bounded) as sub-systems. Single components might themselves be sub-systems.A systems map derives from the perspective of the person or people constructing it. A systems map thus illustrates boundary judgements.UseSystems maps help to identify the themes and elements that you see as being relevant to an issue. Where you draw the boundaries for your SoI is key to deciding at what level to focus upon. For example, is a particular development project an appropriate focus for intervention? It might be more beneficial to focus down a level, examining one aspect of the project, say the budgetary or personnel component. Or conversely, it might be more beneficial to go up at different levels and to focus instead on the policy domain, programme or strategy in which the project is embedded. Perhaps a global focus might be more appropriate than a regional, national, or local focus. Development practice is continually informed by such boundary judgements.Once a particular level of interest (e.g. level of intervention) is decided upon, systems mapping can prompt investigation into the following types of boundary judgement or questions.What is the purpose of intervention? (What exactly is the SoI?)What needs to be done to fulfil that purpose? (What are the components of the SoI?)What obstacles might there be to fulfilling that purpose? (What are the elements in the environment?)In addition, systems maps can be used to analyse existing systems of interest. They can:signal and question exactly what is (as against what ought to be) in the SoI (for example, stakeholders involved in an intervention)signal and question what is (as against what ought to be) in the environment (for example, relevant stakeholders marginalized from the process of intervention, or other factors outside the terms of reference that might be relevant to the success of the intervention).In brief systems mapping can be used to:Clarify thoughts at an early stage of analysis.Establish structural elements for a more detailed diagram.Experiment with systems boundaries.Focus on a level of interest (and various sub-systems of interest within it).Communicate to others the basic structure of the SoI you are describing.Diagram componentsA title defining the purpose of your SoI (the situation or issue you are exploring).Blobs (regular or irregular rounded shapes) to show the boundaries of the system, sub-system components, and elements in the environment.Labels within the blobs to describe the system, sub-system components, and elements in the environment.Note that lines and arrows are not used within systems maps.Conventions and guidelinesIn drawing a systems map the main steps are as follows.Identify the main issue on which you are going to draw a system of interest.Draw the main boundary around your system of interest, thereby specifying what falls within the system itself and what is in the environment.Identify each sub-system and draw a blob around it to establish its boundary.Use words within appropriate boundaries to namethe system (this will be the title of your main system of interest)component sub-systems, andelements in the environment.Blobs (boundaries) may occasionally overlap if some components are seen as belonging to more than one system. However, you should overlap only when the sharing of components is important from your particular viewpoint or when you are still uncertain as to where a component should lie. Overlaps generally work against the aim of clearly identifying a system of interest.Don't worry if it takes several iterations through each step before you are happy with your diagram, or even if it takes several versions of the diagram. Each time you draw or redraw the diagram helps to clarify or refocus your thinking about the situation or issue you are investigating.Activity 8 Animated tutorial 3Watch the animated tutorial (click on ‘View’ below) to see how I built up my systems map of the WWP. If you are still a bit unsure about what a systems map is you might like to view the optional animation, What is a systems map?, before viewing the WWP example.
Animation 6
Page 1In drawing a systems map you need to choose what to focus upon. This represents your first ‘boundary judgement’. I’ve chosen to look at the South African Working for Water Programme as our main bounded system of interest.I could have chosen to focus down or up a level from the programme. For example, to focus down a level, suppose that I identify two sub-systems; one that focuses on the projects and the other on the co-ordinating structures necessary to implement the programme, such as the steering committee, an executive council, a government liaison officer and so on.Looking at this initial system, you could choose to focus down on the geographic project areas. This could be sub-divided into more than 240 individual projects associated with the programme! It might then be useful to focus on one particular project as your system of interest. This will trigger thoughts on what component parts are relevant to your enquiry. You might wish to go down a further level to explore who the stakeholders are. A systems map is a particularly useful device for making a first pass at stakeholder analysis. It prompts important questions, such as which groups of stakeholders are actually involved with the programme? Which might be relevant but not actually involved in the programme design and implementation and therefore are placed in the environment?Page 2Alternatively, it might be more useful to focus up at a higher level of analysis, to which WWP might contribute. For example, the programme might be considered as a constituent part of a system of interest drawn at national level, such as the ‘South African national water strategy’.Page 3However, you could choose to focus on WWP as a component part of an even wider international system of interest centred on water conflicts. Using the limited information available from the case study summary, I had decided to focus on WWP as my primary system of interest, so let’s return to our original system boundary.How do I identify relevant component parts to this system of interest? It’s possible to immediately identify key general component parts that appear obvious. However, there are two more thoughtful and considered approaches.Page 4One is to first brainstorm everything that come to mind as being relevant to the system of interest. This can be done on separate pieces of scrap paper or on a collection of small sticky labels. It might then be possible to work on grouping related factors together. Things affected by the programme or which have an effect on it, but aren’t component parts, ought to be put in the environment. Returning to the main system of interest, I can then construct sub-systems and possibly further sub-sub-systems.Page 5A second approach to identifying relevant factors is by asking particular questions of the main system of interest, which in turn prompts answers that identify relevant factors. For example, questioning the sources of motivation, control and expert support associated with the programme.Very often people use a mixture of the two approaches. In constructing my systems map, I mainly used the second approach of asking key questions relevant to the programme. For example, in drawing the boundary around WWP, the first question I asked is who and/or what is it serving? In other words, what is its purpose or source of motivation?Page 6To answer this I listed down a number of possible stakeholder groups being served by the WWP and a number of goals or targets associated with it. Clearly there’s overlap between many of these components (for example between ‘low unemployed’ and ‘unemployed black South Africans’). To distinguish the components more clearly, I grouped them into two subsystems, one named ‘intended beneficiaries’ and one named ‘measures of success’.Page 7Having addressed important key issues of purpose, there remained questions regarding who the key actors are in securing the success of WWP? What types of action are helping secure success?To answer these questions, I identified two more sub-systems relating to control and expertise:Firstly, a group of key agencies or decision-makers in command of resources necessary for the programme’s success, such as; human, social, financial and infrastructural.Secondly, a sub-system of expert practices or ‘know-how’, being promoted to help provide some guarantee of success.Page 8In each of the two sub-systems a number of key components were identified. You can perhaps think of other components that should be included.Page 9Finally, I began to question factors I’d identified in the environment, which may affect or be affected by the programme, but are essentially outside its immediate sphere of action. These could have a significant impact on whether the programme is a success or failure. Are there other factors you think might be relevant but are not component to WWP?Page 10Reviewing the map later, I decided to remove ‘projects’ from the ‘measures of success’ sub-system as I thought that their number was more of an indicator, which didn’t actually measure the transformative nature of the programme.Similarly, I removed ‘skills training’ and ‘land-use’ from the ‘know-how’ sub-system as they could come under ‘intersectoral practice’ and ‘interdisciplinary expertise’.I also felt it necessary to include ‘land-owners’ as a possibly important constituent of ‘decision making’ as these are people in command of resources, though not necessarily the water itself, which enable the programme to succeed.Finally, for ease of reference, I decided to group local and national South African government agencies together in the ‘decision making’ sub-system. Whilst this reduces the congestion of factors in the map, it might inadvertently lead to misinterpreting local and national government decision making as being the same thing!Page 11Your own system maps for the WWP might be very different from mine. What differences, doubts, or questions occurred to you as the map developed? Remember, there is no right answer to systems mapping. In using systems mapping you are primarily engaged with the skill of making and defending boundary judgements.SummaryChoose an appropriate level of interest to focus on and name your system of interest (SoI).Draw a large central blob entitled with the name of your SoI.Identify a number of sub-system components key to the success of your chosen SoI and represent them as labelled blobs within the main SoI.Explore how some components might be grouped together into larger subsystems or alternatively further divided into sub-sub-systems.Think of elements outside the SoI that may have an impact on the SoI and/or be affected by the SoI, and present these as environmental elements to your SoI.Click on systems map to see the description of the animated tutorial.3.6 Final diagramYou may wish to refer back to the WWP case study as you work through the activity on this page.For a printable A4 size copy of diagram, click on ‘View document’.View documentActivity 9 Systems mapDraw a systems map illustrating one of the following.your impression of the South African Working for Water Programme, possibly from a different level of interest to that demonstrated in the tutorial (e.g. a higher level such as an international perspective or a lower level such as the stakeholders associated with the programme); oran intervention that you have been involved with (either home- or work-related).For the intervention that you choose:name the system of interest (SoI) being focused upon, in terms of a purpose (e.g., a system to. reduce ethnic conflict);think of and map four or five bounded sub-system components key to the success of your chosen SoI;if you have more then five components, examine how some might be grouped together and present these on your map as sub-systems of sub-systems (or sub-sub-systems);ConclusionIn this unit you have been introduced to rich pictures, spray diagrams and systems maps. You have seen how they can help with understanding complex situations by organising your thoughts; particularly thoughts on linkages about different factors associated with complex realities. The systems diagramming techniques here help towards bounding your thoughts in a visual manner that can help communicate ideas to others, possibly across different cultures, in circumstances where the right words can be hard to find to establish the shared understanding needed to enable more meaningful dialogue. Rich pictures, spray diagrams and systems maps can help in brainstorming and analysing issues, revealing significant challenges as well as opportunities for intervention.Keep on learningStudy another free courseThere are more than 800 courses on OpenLearn for you to choose from on a range of subjects. Find out more about all our free courses.Take your studies furtherFind out more about studying with The Open University by visiting our online prospectus.If you are new to university study, you may be interested in our Access Courses or Certificates.What’s new from OpenLearn?Sign up to our newsletter or view a sample.For reference, full URLs to pages listed above:OpenLearn – www.open.edu/openlearn/free-coursesVisiting our online prospectus – www.open.ac.uk/coursesAccess Courses – www.open.ac.uk/courses/do-it/accessCertificates – www.open.ac.uk/courses/certificates-heNewsletter – www.open.edu/openlearn/about-openlearn/subscribe-the-openlearn-newsletterGrateful acknowledgement is made to the following sources for permission to reproduce material in this unit:Dr Martin Reynolds (lead academic author)Wendy Fisher (author of the WWP ‘rich picture’)Jane Bromley (interactive media developer)Karen Shipp and the OU Systems Group for animations in ‘2.1: When to use each diagram.’ These animations form part of T552 Systems thinking and practice: Diagramming from which much of the diagramming source material for this unit was derived. T552 is a diagramming pack which supported modules in the undergraduate Systems Diploma and Systems Residential School and supports modules in the postgraduate Systems Thinking in Practice qualifications. Further details of this pack and associated Systems courses can be found at the Open University’s Systems Group website.U316 The environmental web from which the spray diagram tutorial and WWP case study are derived.Particular thanks are also due to Sandrine Simone, Gloria Median, Bina Sharma and Rissa de la Paz.adapted from an image by Angela Sevin: the original can be seen at http://www.flickr.com/photos/angela7/261618376 [Details correct as of 24 October 2011]Except for third party materials and otherwise stated (see terms and conditions), this content is made available under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 Licence.Every effort has been made to contact copyright holders. If any have been inadvertently overlooked, the publishers will be pleased to make the necessary arrangements at the first opportunity.Don't miss out:If reading this text has inspired you to learn more, you may be interested in joining the millions of people who discover our free learning resources and qualifications by visiting The Open University - www.open.edu/openlearn/free-coursesDiscussion2018011700