# 1.3.2 Social

Referring back to Frith’s framework at the beginning of Section 1, you’ll remember that the environment can be heavily influential in each perspective. For instance, we now know that biochemicals are an environmental influencer. This section will explore literacy demands, reactions from teachers/peers and support at home.

## Home environment

Adams (1990) suggested that reading aloud to preschool children benefits later reading development. This is supported by Snowling and Göbel (2010) and Massaro (2017). Additionally, Snow (1991) found that children with a ‘literate home environment’ progress better in reading than peers who were exposed to less ‘literate’ contexts. This is reported by several studies in different countries, from rural Tanzania to Malta and Austria. Studies show that children’s knowledge of nursery rhymes can predict both reading performance and phonological awareness (Eghbaria-Ghanamah et al., 2020; Bdeir, 2022).

## School environment

Different reading instruction methods can prevent reading difficulties (Kelly and Phillips, 2022; Kuo, 2023). Similarly, overemphasis on either phonic (alphabetic) or whole-word (logographic) approaches can worsen reading difficulties, because of the need for both skills to compensate for the relative weaknesses of each approach. Empirical studies have shown that children who are ‘streamed’ into low-ability groups often receive less effective instruction due to lower expectations (Johnston, Wildy and Shand, 2023). Negative reactions in the academic environment can lead to depression and anxiety (Bazen et al., 2023; discussed further in Week 4). Certainly, there is a relation between literacy demands and internalising problems.

## Educational support

Accommodations may include ‘reasonable adjustments’ (Lai & Berkeley, 2012) such as: extended time for an exam, or extended deadlines for submission of coursework (Bolt et al., 2011); leniency towards spelling errors (Gibson, 2012); one-to-one sessions on study strategies, writing structure, reading techniques, time management, mind mapping, memory and concentration techniques (Myhill, 2023). Inclusive assessments and positive teacher attitudes are linked to wellbeing and successful learning (Covarrubia, 2022; Bazen et al., 2023). Lack of support can have an emotional impact, resulting in conditions like anxiety and depression, though research on this is limited.

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