4.1 Outline of the terrorism case study
Terrorism has been a challenge for states and international organisations throughout the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Academics have defined terrorism in various ways and the United Nations has struggled to reach a consensus on the definition of terrorism among its member states. As a result, there is no universal definition of terrorism, but it is broadly understood as the use of violence to achieve political, religious or ideological goals. For the purposes of this course, ‘terrorism’ will be understood in a colloquial sense, that is, where groups or incidents are widely referred to as ‘terrorists’ or ‘terrorism’, then that terminology will be followed.
The case of Nelson Mandela highlights some of the challenges in defining terrorism. Mandela was a leading member of the African National Congress (ANC), an organisation formed to fight for the rights of South Africa’s Black population, and a key figure in the movement against apartheid. He was labelled a terrorist by some because of his role in advocating violent resistance through uMkhonto weSizwe (‘Spear of the Nation’), the ANC’s armed wing. Mandela argued that violence was a necessary response to systemic oppression and white supremacy. This shift to violence shows how actions seen as justified and legitimate by some can be framed as terrorism by others. Mandela’s later recognition as a global statesman and champion of democracy shows how difficult it is to define terrorism.
Furthermore, one of the challenges with the term ‘terrorists’ is that it often implies a moral judgement – that terrorism is what the bad guys do. It is certainly the case that the liberation movement in South Africa, and uMkhonto weSizwe specifically, used violence to attain their political goals. This violence killed many, including civilians. Does their cause make them freedom fighters? Or do these acts of violence mean they are terrorists?
Activity 6
Terrorist or freedom fighter? Reflect on this question and make a note of your thoughts in the text box below.
One of the most significant events related to terrorism was the September 11 2001 attacks, when al-Qaeda (AQ), a militant organisation committed to a global Islamist revolution, hijacked planes to target the United States, killing nearly 3,000 people. Following this act of terrorism, states, airports and the aviation industry responded by implementing a new security regime. These attacks initiated the so-called ‘war on terror,’ including military interventions in Afghanistan, where the Taliban were accused of protecting AQ, and later Iraq, over controversial claims related to terrorism and weapons of mass destruction. These conflicts would have significant implications, and AQ, and subsequently Islamic State, would mobilise into global insurgencies, prompting an equally global counterterrorism and counterinsurgency response. Furthermore, following the 9/11 attacks, other terrorist incidents followed, including major attacks in Madrid (2004), London (2005), Paris (2015), Brussels (2016) and Manchester (2017), causing significant loss of life and creating ongoing challenges to international security. Consequently, the ‘war on terror’ has transformed daily life, increasing surveillance, security measures, and debates about civil liberties worldwide.
Activity 7
You’ll now watch a slideshow focused on terrorism, to gain a wider understanding of the different actors that have used ‘terrorism’ in the modern era and understand the effects that terrorism has had on international relations.
Then answer the following questions in the text boxes below
First, the slideshow introduced a variety of actors who have been described as ‘terrorists’ or as having used ‘terrorism’. Did any of these surprise you? Did any stand out to you? Why?
Reflect on these questions, writing down your thoughts in the text box below.
Second, the slideshow discussed some of the ways in which ‘terrorism’ has impacted on international relations. Which of these stood out to you? What do you think are the important effects that the issue of terrorism has had for international relations?
Reflect on these questions, writing down your thoughts in the text box below.
Discussion
There are lots of things that you could have identified or thought about when answering these prompts.
For many, it is interesting to learn about some of the groups that have been understood as ‘terrorists’ in the past, such as the anarchists of the late nineteenth century, or the liberation movements of the 1920s to 1960s.
Similarly, there are lots of ways you might have reflected on the international impacts of terrorism. You might have considered:
- the way in which terrorism has led to international cooperation between states in an effort to counter it
- the way in which some of the actors of national liberation movements have been considered terrorists, and the effects of decolonisation movements on the states that make up the international system
- the use of terrorism by state actors to suppress opposition.
You can now read the next sub-section and compare your answers.
OpenLearn - Introducing International Relations
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