Constructivism

Constructivism emerged in the late 1980s and 1990s, partly in response to what some saw as the limitations of realism and liberalism. It has its origins in ideas drawn from sociology and psychology, particularly those focused on human identity. Its key claims and concepts include the following.

The International environment is a social system, meaning that states and other actors interact like individuals in society, shaping their identities, interests, and perceptions of others through these interactions. Furthermore, there are shared understandings and norms, that govern international behaviour. These norms are not fixed, but rather evolve over time, challenging by this way static assumptions like state sovereignty. Also, in contrast to a realist (and some liberal) accounts that see a fairly simple relationship between a state’s interests and its actions in the international arena constructivists see a more complex process. Hence, unlike realists who view interests as fixed, constructivists suggest that interests emerge from identities, which are shaped by historical and social contexts. Finally, constructivists focus on how sustained interactions create new norms and expectations, which can influence even powerful states through a ‘compliance pull’. However, norm development is uneven, and violations by major powers can undermine their influence.

Key thinkers include Nicholas Onuf, Martha Finnemore and Kathryn Sikkink who focus on how norms and identities evolve through social processes. Alexander Wendt famously argued that ‘anarchy is what states make of it’ (1992) and suggested that state behaviour and relationships depend on constructed perceptions, ranging from enmity to friendship, rather than inherent competition.