3.1 Outline of the Africa case
In the twenty-first century, the African continent became a significant arena for global power competition. Leading powers like the US, France and Russia, as well as the so-called rising powers like China, India and Turkey started competing for influence in Africa. This increasing interest arose due to the fact that many African countries possess resources important to the economies of the world and are important markets. In addition, these countries possess considerable diplomatic influence in international organisations, like for instance the United Nations. At the same time, some African governments have been active in developing new relationships with various countries external to Africa and the financial, political and other advantages they might offer.
Consequently, despite sometimes being marginalised in the past, contemporary Africa has attracted global interest and started initiating collaborations with major powers seeking resources. Djibouti, the third smallest country in Africa with a population of under a million, exemplifies this shift. It is one of Africa’s key strategic locations, due to its position on the Bab al-Mandab Strait (see Figure 3), a critical point connecting the Red Sea to the Gulf of Aden, through which a significant portion of global trade passes. By the 2020s, its geographic importance had attracted military bases from no fewer than eight foreign countries, motivated by objectives such as combating piracy, securing trade routes and supporting energy supply lines.
Djibouti and many other African states have progressively collaborated with external powers to secure economic benefits, infrastructure investment and trade relationships. The Economist magazine, which infamously declared Africa ‘the hopeless continent’ in 2000, changed its tune, investigating a ‘New Scramble for Africa’ in 2019 in which there were new diplomatic and economic opportunities opening up (The Economist, 2019).
The term ‘scramble for Africa’ referred to the colonisation of Africa roughly between 1880 and 1910, with only Liberia and Ethiopia remaining independent. This period’s legacy is evident in modern African borders, many of which align with those established during colonial rule (see Figures 4 and 5).
It is important to note that this new reality has met with mixed responses within Africa. While some African counties welcome partnerships that provide economic or security advantages, concerns about labour, environmental impact, and local industry competition have given rise to protests and considerable criticism. For example, in 2013 protests erupted over labour conditions, environmental damage, and unfair business practices in Zambia, where workers clashed with Chinese managers at a coal mine, leading to government intervention. Similarly, in the 2020s, the East African Crude Oil Pipeline (EACOP) project, backed by European and Chinese investors, has faced environmental protests in Uganda and Tanzania due to ecological risks and displacement concerns. Thus, the African case shows the challenges of contemporary international relations, where global powers and African nations experience opportunities but also tensions arising from the growing competition on the African continent.
The following activity will review the categories of actors and how they have been featured in the Africa case study.
Activity 3
As you have seen, actors have been defined in this course as ‘the main organisations, groups or individuals who take part, or “make things happen”, in international relations’. Actors can be divided into three broad groups (state, international organisations and non-state actors), with a number of subgroups.
Watch this short report from the BBC’s Africa Service which touches on many of the actors covered in section 2 of this course: Is this the ‘second scramble for Africa’?.
Identify which actors belong under each of the group headings.
The slideshow below offers a specific example within the broader context of competition in Africa: the case of cobalt in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). (Note that the DRC is often just referred to as ‘Congo’ but is distinct from the much smaller country of Congo (Brazzaville) which isn’t included here.) This example shows how international relations – particularly the competition over DRC’s mining sector – extend across continents, influencing national policies (such as the push for net-zero emissions) and impacting the lives of people far beyond the original site. It also brings together various international actors, interconnected within the global system on issues including commercial interests, national development, environmental policies and diplomatic relations.
Activity 4
Watch the slideshow and then answer the following questions in the text boxes below.
1. Write a couple of sentences as to why, in your view, the slideshow presents an example of international relations? There’s no single correct answer to this first question, so just write a couple of sentences to summarise your initial thoughts.
Discussion
You might have noted the involvement of multiple states (countries); the way issues like trade and investment reach across international boundaries or that events in the DRC have impacts across the globe.
2. Try to identify some actors in this example
Discussion
In terms of actors, there are several you might have noted: the governments of DRC and China; the US president; mining companies and car firms; labour activists. Those consuming renewable technologies in the UK – electric and hybrid car owners are also perhaps actors in this case, as consumers.
3. Try to identify some international relations issues this example.
Discussion
Issues raised by the example that you might have noted include economic rivalries between China and western states; environmental issues related to the growth of renewable technology and the impact of mining in DRC; and political issues such as the cooperation agreement struck between the DRC and China. You may well have noted others.
You can now read the subsequent sub-section and compare your answers.
OpenLearn - Introducing International Relations
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