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Unit 17: Grammar
Introduction
What is grammar? One way to think about it, is as a set of general guidelines within a speech community, which determine the order words go in and how they are changed to show things like singular and plural – or past and present. As with vocabulary and pronunciation, grammar is not set in stone but constantly changing.
Many languages have formal prescriptive grammar books, which give rise to notions of right and wrong. Another effect of these prescriptive grammar books is to “freeze” the grammar of a language at a given moment in time. Scots being a non-standard language does not have prescriptive grammar books and so is not fixed in such a way.
Thus, a mix of historical forms and innovations continues to give rise to regional variations, which have been explored in unit 10 on Dialect Diversity. This grammar unit looks at some of the ways in which Scots language grammar differs from English grammar and highlights variations within Scots. Some grammatical terms are used but their meaning should be clear from the context and examples.
You will notice that this unit works slightly differently from other units in this course. You will be introduced to a range of grammatical features with relevant examples rather than read an essay-style description of grammatical developments. In addition, you will work hands-on with a variety of examples.
The unit provides you with the vocabulary to think about and discuss Scots, English and other Modern languages in that it gives you the grounding to undertake further exploration and discover new aspects of the language. In addition, the approach taken in this unit is to work with grammar in spoken and written Scots, which is why there will be plenty of opportunities for you to listen to Scots and speak it, too.
Furthermore, you will be coming across a range of grammatical terms in this unit. In case you are not familiar with any of them, refer to the Oxford English Dictionary’s Glossary of grammatical terms.
Important details to take notes on throughout this unit:
- survivals from Old English or Middle English
- the ways in which the grammar continues to change
- regional variation in grammar
- variation even in a single speaker.
Activity 1 
Before commencing your study of this unit, you may wish to jot down some thoughts on the important details we suggest you take notes on throughout this unit. You could write down what you already know about each of these points, as well as any assumption or question you might have.
17. Introductory handsel
A Scots word and example sentence to learn:
Definition: II. equipment, tools
Example sentence: “Grammar an wirds is the graith o language.”
English translation: “Grammar and words are the tools of language.”
Activity 2
Click to hear the sentence above read by a Scots speaker.
You can then make your own recording and play it back to check your pronunciation.
Transcript
Listen
Grammar an wirds is the graith o language.
Model
Grammar an wirds is the graith o language.
Go to the Dictionary of the Scots Language for a full definition of the word
Language Links
The Scots noun graith has a long history and is connected to, or has its roots in, a number of other Northern and Western European languages. In modern German, the noun Gerät does not only sound very similar to the Scots graith, it also has the same meaning as a collective term for tools or equipment.
The noun also has connections with the modern Faroese language where greiði is used to mean requisite articles or a tool; then in Norwegian greida denotes implements or a tackle or it can be used as greide (harness). The word graith in its current spelling appeared around 1300 in Northern Middle English meaning equipment, and in a specific context, it is used to mean harness, furnishing, or even a dress!
Here are pre-1700 usages of the word in Scots.
Related word:
Definition: To build, construct:
Example sentence: “Wi the richt graith ye can big braw sentences wi guid grammar.”
English translation: “With the right tools you can construct good sentences with good grammar.”
Activity 3
Click to hear the sentence above read by a Scots speaker.
You can then make your own recording and play it back to check your pronunciation.
Transcript
Listen
Wi the richt graith ye can big braw sentences wi guid grammar.
Model
Wi the richt graith ye can big braw sentences wi guid grammar.
17.1 Why grammar?
Grammar has long been a subject of study — as a companion to rhetoric in ancient Greece and Rome and as one of the seven liberal arts in medieval education. Although the methods of studying grammar have changed dramatically in recent times, the reasons for studying grammar have remained essentially the same. […]
"Grammar is important because it is the language that makes it possible for us to talk about language. Grammar names the types of words and word groups that make up sentences not only in English but in any language. As human beings, we can put sentences together even as children — we can all do grammar.
But to be able to talk about how sentences are built, about the types of words and word groups that make up sentences — that is knowing about grammar. And knowing about grammar offers a window into the human mind and into our amazingly complexmental capacity."
Activity 4
Following on from Nordquist’s thoughts above and to start off your work in this unit, we thought it useful for you to try out how much you might already know about grammar and also the grammar of the Scots language.
Part 1
First, listen to a short passage in Scots, and while listening, think about any particular grammatical features that stand out to you. As a second step, read the passage yourself and then compare your version with our model – as always, if you are not a Scots speaker, try to imitate the pronunciation and sentence stress of our speaker.
Transcript
Listen
A seen it last week an it wisnae bonny. Its springs wis hingin oot, twa legs wis aff it an it’s no ony better nor the ane A hae the noo, sae A nivver bocht it. A says tae them “Ye’d be better takkin it tae the cowp” and they gets aa affrontit and says “There’s naethin wrang wi wir sofa.” I says “Get yer een testit.”
Model
A seen it last week an it wisnae bonny. Its springs wis hingin oot, twa legs wis aff it an it’s no ony better nor the ane A hae the noo, sae A nivver bocht it. A says tae them “Ye’d be better takkin it tae the cowp” and they gets aa affrontit and says “There’s naethin wrang wi wir sofa.” I says “Get yer een testit.”
Part 2
Think about the grammar of this passage and highlight the features can you spot that are not used in formal Standard English. How many of these features would you use yourself?
Your answer will depend on where you come from. Not all of these features are used all over Scotland. Some are common and there is one that could be considered a bit too ahead of its time to be widely accepted. Each of these features will be discussed in this unit and the answer will point you to the relevant sections.
Answer
Find out more on the specific features highlighted in the passage in the following sections:
- A, ye, wir – pronouns – for more information see section 3. Some widespread features of Scots grammar;
- -nae, nivver – negatives – for more information see section 3.;
- Wis – personal pronouns – for more information see section 4. Some regional features on Northern Personal Pronoun Rule;
- -in – participle endings of verbs – for more information see section 4. Some regional features on Present participle and verbal nouns;
- no – negatives – for more information see section 3.;
- nor – comparisons – for more information see section 3.;
- the – articles – for more information see section 3. on Determiners;
- says – tense forms of verbs – for more information see section 3. on Narrative present tense;
- -it – tense forms of verbs endings – for more information see section 3. on Past tenses;
- een – noun – for more information see section 3.
17.2 Some widespread features of Scots grammar
A key feature of this unit is to show you that the speakers of a language make its grammar – not the grammar books and the people who write them. Remember that grammar is flexible and fluid, it changes with the way in which speakers use their language.
That is why you will come across questions where we ask about your opinion – and on how you as the speaker use the language, or consider it used well.
In addition, you will be able to listen to and record yourself speaking many examples containing different grammatical features of Scots, which will help you get used to how Scots grammar works and how Scots words are used in their grammatical context.
I. Negatives
a) To make a negative, add to the relevant verb:
-nae (e.g. West Central, East Central South) or
-na (e.g. North East, Shetland) where English speakers would use -n’t:
Examples:
Transcript
Listen
It wisnae bonny
Model
It wisnae bonny
Transcript
Listen
They canna get oot.
Model
They canna get oot.
b) Nivver is used in the sense of not to refer to one particular occasion. There is no emphasis intended.
Examples:
Transcript
Listen
A nivver bocht it.
Model
A nivver bocht it.
Transcript
Listen
I bade in aa day but the postman nivver cam.
Model
I bade in aa day but the postman nivver cam.
c) As in many regional varieties of English, and as was common in earlier times, double or triple negatives are often used to emphasise negativity rather than cancelling each other out.
Examples:
Transcript
Listen
A nivver had nae denner.
Model
A nivver had nae denner.
Transcript
Listen
A nivver said naething tae naebody.
Model
A nivver said naething tae naebody.
II. Past tenses
Where English uses -ed to form a part tense or past participle, Scots often uses -it. Work with the examples below and make sure to read the transcript, which also contains important grammatical information.
Examples:
Transcript
Listen
A lowpit the dyke. (past tense)
Model
A lowpit the dyke. (past tense)
Transcript
Listen
He haes chappit the tatties. (past participle)
Model
He haes chappit the tatties. (past participle)
Transcript
Listen
The cairtie wis coupit. . (past participle)
Model
The cairtie wis coupit. . (past participle)
*Note that for these verbs, the past tense and the past participle have the same form. There are other verbs, like blaw, where they change: blaw, blew (past tense), blawn (past participle). Over hundreds of years, verbs have been changing to make the grammar more regular. So, in Scots it is also possible to use blawed for the past tense and past participle.
Compare English give, gave, given with Scots gie, gied, gied or gien. In this word, Scots would appear to have gone further along the road to simplification but this is not always the case. For example, you will hear the past tenses dove (dived) and jamp (jumped) in some parts of Scotland.
As well as making more verbs end in -ed or -it, another way of simplifying verbs is to make the past tense and the past participle the same. A seen and A done are examples of simplification in progress. See, saw, seen may eventually become see seen seen if enough people accept and actively use it.
Language simplification – innovation or bad grammar?
What do you think – should we consider these changes in relation to the simplification of grammatical forms as innovation or bad grammar? Why? Remember, some people deem more complex grammar a sign of ‘good language’, whereas others think a language is good when its grammar is relatively simple and thus easier to use by its speakers and people learning it as a foreign language.
III. Narrative Present Tense
This grammatical feature is often used to bring vividness into a story. Note that the endings are not the same as in the ordinary present tense. The narrative present tense has an -s ending for every verb in the sentence/text, whereas in the normal present tense this would only apply to the third person singular.
Example:
Transcript
Listen
We gets aff the train and she says nothing.
Model
We gets aff the train and she says nothing.
Transcript
Listen
I keeps quiet an aa.
Model
I keeps quiet an aa.
*(Chaucer used to do this in Middle English but this has disappeared from standard English today).
IV. Comparisons
Where English uses than to make comparisons, Scots is more likely to use nor.
Example:
Transcript
Listen
This ane’s better nor thon.
Model
This ane’s better nor thon.
Language development – innovation or bad grammar?
Strictly speaking, nor is a conjunction, like than. So just as an English grammar book would tell you to say “He is bigger than I (am)”, the more historically justifiable Scots form would suggest He is bigger nor I. Is that what people really say? Do you feel there is anything wrong with He is bigger nor me? Remember it is people who make grammar rules, not books.
Activity 5
You are now going to test your understanding of the four grammatical features of Scots: negatives, past tenses, narrative present tense and comparisons. To do so, you will work with extracts from two texts you have already come across in this course. Highlight any instances of any of the four grammatical features in the two extracts.
Part 1
Discussion
*This extract contains examples of negatives and past tenses – note also a past tense with the ending –t in wandert, where the ‘i’ has been left out of the past tense ending as it would not be pronounced. There is also one example of a comparison with nor.
Part 2
Discussion
*This extract includes examples of negatives and narrative present tense.
17.3 Some widespread features of Scots grammar – continued
V. Determiners
Determiners are words like a, the, this, my, one. They turn cat sat on mat into a well-formed sentence:
- “The cat sat on a mat.”
Here are examples using cat and mat to show how determiners add variety and specificity to sentences:
- Ma cat sat on yer mat.
- Fower cats sat on twa mats.
- Nae cat sat on ony mat.
a) Scots uses these words where Standard English uses them less often or not at all. Work with the examples below and read the transcript, which contains the translation of the sentences.
Examples:
Transcript
Listen
Up the stair. (upstairs)
Model
Up the stair. (upstairs)
Transcript
Listen
I’m awa hame fur ma denner. (for dinner)
Model
I’m awa hame fur ma denner. (for dinner)
Transcript
Listen
He’s gaed tae the scuil. (to school. No particular school is intended.)
Model
He’s gaed tae the scuil. (to school. No particular school is intended.)
Transcript
Listen
She’s got the cold. (a cold)
Model
She’s got the cold. (a cold)
Transcript
Listen
She’s taen the measles. (she’s got measles)
Model
She’s taen the measles. (she’s got measles)
b) The plural of this in Scots is thir. This may be an example of Old Norse influence. The plural of that is thay or thae straight from Old English.
c) If this refers to something close and that refers to something further away, Scots has an extra option, thon or yon, for something or someone even more remote in space or time.
VI. Plural of nouns
Most of the time, Scots makes a noun plural by adding –s or –es (twa dugs, matches) but there are also nouns where Scots has kept an older form such as –en. This only survives in Standard English in oxen. In Scots, we have een (ee + en, eyes) and shin or sheen (shae/shee + -en, shoes). In some dialects, such as Ulster Scots, we have an –er plural in childer where Standard English and many Scots dialects have both an –er and an –en plural, hence children.
VII. Pronouns
Personal pronouns show some regional variation.
a.The most widespread subject forms are: A or I; ye or you; he, she, it or hit in the singular; we; ye or you or youse; and thay or they in the plural.
b.Object forms are: me; ye or you or youse; him, her, it or hit; us or wis; ye or you or youse; and thaim or them.
c.Possessive forms are: my or ma; your or yer; his, her, its or hits; oor or wir; your or yer; thair or their.
*Note that ye and wir are less likely to be used in a stressed or emphatic context.
d.Reflexive pronouns: Scots forms reflexive pronouns in a regular fashion by using the possessive pronoun + sel throughout: for example masel ‘myself’, yersel yourself’, hissel ‘himself’, and oorsels or wirsels ‘ourselves’.
e.Relative pronouns: The interrogative or relative pronouns are wha (who) and wham (whom) as in Scots wham Bruce has aft-times led. Wham in Scots, like whom in English is now rarely used by young speakers.
Activity 6
In this activity you will apply what you have learned about determiners, plural of nouns and pronouns in Scots. You are going to work again with two texts you have come across in the course before: Christina Costie’s poem ‘Speech’ and Margaret Laidlaw’s famous quote about her songs being spoiled by being printed in the Minstrelsy by Scott.
Part 1
Christina Costie ‘Speech’ – Find all examples of plurals of nouns, pronouns and determiners in this extract.
Discussion
* Note the spelling sheu for ‘she’, which reflects the Orkadian dialect of Scots and is not a very commonly used spelling for this pronoun.
Part 2
Margaret Laidlaw’s complaint to Walter Scott - find all examples of pronouns and plurals of nouns in this quote.
17.4 Some regional features
I. Auxiliary Verbs
An auxiliary verb is an extra verb that supports the main verb in some way. We use the verb to be as an auxiliary as in he wis rinnin, the verb to hae as in He haes boakit on the carpet, or the verb to dae in questions and negatives: He gaed > Did he gae? He didna gae. There is a special group of auxiliary verbs called the modal auxiliaries (will, wad, may, micht, can, cuid, shall, shuid, maun, yaised tae). They can carry a lot of meaning. Compare I can bile an egg with I micht bile an egg or I shuid bile an egg, (but I’m no daein it).
Particularly in Ulster Scots and in the Edinburgh and the Hawick dialects, you will hear combinations of modal auxiliary verbs which would sound odd to speakers from elsewhere. These ‘double modals’ are well established features of the grammar of these regions. Work with the examples below and read the transcript, which contains the translation of the sentences.
Transcript
Listen
We used to could dae that
We used to do that
Model
We used to could dae that
We used to do that
Transcript
Listen
He’ll no can come the day
He’ll not come today
Model
He’ll no can come the day
He’ll not come today
II. Subject/verb agreement
You may notice something different about this sentence compared to how it would sound in the English language:
- Its springs wis hingin oot, twa legs wis aff it.
Springs and legs are plural but the verb wis looks singular. To complicate matters, the same speaker might also say:
- They are hingin oot and they are aff it.
This is an example of the Northern Personal Pronoun Rule. This too is a survival from an earlier period. This requires verbs to end in -s even when the subject is plural (compare Scots the babies sleeps with Standard English the babies sleep) unless the pronoun is plural and is placed immediately beside the verb, so:
- the babies sleeps but they sleep
Activity 7
In this activity, you will test your understanding of the subject-verb-agreement rule relating to the Northern Personal Pronoun Rule. Listen to the example and then decide whether the explanation for the use of the verb with or without an –s ending is true or false.
Part 1
Transcript
Listen
The dugs lowps the fence.
Model
The dugs lowps the fence.
a.
True
b.
False
The correct answer is a.
Part 2
Transcript
Listen
They lowp the fence.
Model
They lowp the fence.
a.
True
b.
False
The correct answer is a.
Part 3
Transcript
Listen
We wha daes wir hame sume gets guid merks.
Model
We wha daes wir hame sume gets guid merks.
a.
False
b.
True
The correct answer is a.
a.
True
b.
False
The correct answer is a.
This all sounds very complicated, but the fact that people with no knowledge of formal grammar get the Northern Personal Pronoun Rule right tells you something important. The speakers are the real experts – not the people who write books about it. This is far from a universal feature of Scots and even the people who use it in their dialect often drift into a more standard English form.
III. Northern Personal Pronoun
The Northern Personal Pronoun Rule is a historical feature once common across the North of England as well as in Scotland. When you find a sentence like They gets aa affrontit – where the -s form appears with an adjacent person pronoun – it may look as if the rule is being broken. On these occasions, however, it may be that a narrative present tense is being used.
IV. Present participles and verbal nouns
The present participle is the part of the verb that we use after the verb to be in so-called progressive constructions such as:
- I am rinnin. He wis walkin.
You can also use it like an adjective:
- the drippin tap, the bilin kettle.
In Modern Scots it usually ends with –in but a few hundred years ago, it used to end with –and:
- I am rinnand. He wes walkand.
V. Determiners
The verbal noun also ends with –in for Modern Scots. It is called a verbal noun because, although it is part of a verb, it behaves like a noun. It often comes after a determiner:
- A’m here for the singin His singin wad turn milk soor.
It can be the subject of a sentence:
- The singin wis braw.
It can be the object of a sentence:
- We heard the singin.
Subjects and objects are usually nouns or pronouns. The verbal noun ended with –ing for a very long time.
Activity 8
Read the list of examples of older Scots and highlight the verbal nouns and present participles.
Discussion
Note:
- war sportand (were sporting) sportand is a present participle
- my begynning (my beginning) verbal noun after a possessive (compare my end, your book)
- variand windis (varying winds) present participle being used as an adjective as opposed to: The winds are varying.
- your slomering (your slumbering) verbal noun after a possessive
- syttand on thair nestis present participle being used an adjective to describe birdis.
This is the stage that many Scots speakers were still at only a generation or two ago. Again, speakers who had never heard of a verbal noun or a present participle made the distinction in their speech and got it right all the time. Now this distinction only survives in Orkney and Shetland, and among older speakers in isolated pockets elsewhere. Today we can see how often and becomes an and -ing becomes -in.
It is therefore not surprising that the old verbal noun ending -ing became -in and the old present participle ending -and became -an. We can hear all the time how vowels in unstressed syllables become pronounced less clearly, so for the rest of us, the two endings have long since collapsed together with no distinction. Indeed, the -ng sound has even been extended by analogy to the English present participle, where historically it does not belong.
VI. Personal Pronouns and polite forms of address
The first person pronoun is usually A in the Central Belt, but as you move up the East Coast you are more likely to hear I. The second person plural is often youse in Ulster Scots and West Central Scots and this feature is spreading. It seems that we are not altogether content with you for both the singular and plural second person.
Historically, thou (thee, thy) was second person singular and ye (you, your) was second person plural. Then it became fashionable throughout Europe to use the singular form to address social inferiors, children, people you knew very well or people that you did not know very well and wished to insult. The plural form was used to show respect and formality. Scots was no exception and we followed similar rules to those which still operate in French (tu, vous) and German (du, Sie) today.
One theory for thou falling out of use in Scotland (and England) could be that the rules became too cumbersome and confusing, so everyone went with the safe, polite option. The exception is in Shetland where du, dee and dy are still used for the intimate informal singular.
17.5 Good Scots
The lack of a grammar book in Scots has certain advantages. It means that no single dialect is socially dominant; all speakers of Scots, whatever their age and whatever their place of origin bring something to the grammar of their community. The downside is that there is a commonly held notion that Scots grammar is somehow substandard.
If we had the same academic resources for Scots grammar, such as the Dictionary of the Scots Language provides for vocabulary, the historical origins and creative innovation of Scots grammar could be viewed in a more balanced way.
Among the socially disparaged Scots usages are thae, the plural of that. As we have seen, survivals include the determiner thae as a plural of that and –in as the ending of the present participle and verbal noun. For all that these may be ‘bad English’ they are undoubtedly ‘good Scots’, with thae going back as far as Old English and -ing for the present participle being unhistorical even in English (the Old English ending was -ende).
Other older forms include multiple negatives; the operation of the Northern Personal Pronoun Rule; and the survival of the singular form of the second person pronoun as du (dee dy) in Shetland. Ongoing innovations include the simplification of verbs so that past tenses and past participles have the same form (I seen it, I have seen it).
We can also see that Scots features, like the use of the Northern Personal Pronoun Rule and distinct forms of the verbal noun (-in) and present participle (-an) are being eroded under the influence of English – the language from which most Scots absorb notions of ‘good and bad’ grammar.
The grammar of the Northern Isles provides many instances of conservative constructions with long pedigrees and contrasts with the more anglicised Central Belt. Even here, many features of Scots grammar survive. Yet, because most Scots speakers drift between English and Scots in their speech, increasing the English in more formal speech or conversing with strangers, a single speaker may use both Scots and English forms.
Even when speaking Scots, familiarity with English forms may erode his or her Scots grammar even when Scots vocabulary is being used.
You might now want to try reading and listening to more and longer Scots texts. For example, you could start by reading the iconic Scots language comics Oor Wullie and The Broons, published initially in The Sunday Post newspaper from Dundee. Reading and listening to Scots is an ideal strategy to help you get used to not only the sound of the language and the vocabulary but also how the words are put together in sentences and longer passages.
17.6 What I have learned
Activity 9
Before finishing your work on this unit, please revisit what you worked on in Activity 1, where we asked you to take some notes on what you already knew in relation to the key learning point of the unit.
Compare your notes from before you studied this unit with what you have learned here and add to these notes as you see fit to produce a record of your learning.
Here are the key learning points again for you as a reminder:
- survivals from Old English or Middle English
- the ways in which the grammar continues to change
- regional variation in grammar
- variation even in a single speaker.
Further research
You may want to explore an exciting new resource, the Scots Syntax Atlas developed by researchers at the University of Glasgow, charting the richness and diversity of Scotland’s local dialects, in terms of their vocabulary but also their grammatical structures. Encompassing “fit like” of north-east Scotland, “gonnae no” in Glasgow, and “I might can do” from the Borders, the atlas offers a means of tracing the development of local speech patterns. For example, the influence of Irish immigration can be heard in Glaswegian Scots phrases such as “She’s after locking us out”.
You can explore features of Scots grammar further in Clive Young’s The Scots Learner’s Grammar online resource, which focuses on modern use of Scots and provides a wealth of useful examples. Also available as in PDF format.
This is the Scottish Language Dictionaries home site, the organisation responsible for the Dictionary of the Scots Language. The pages in this link provide an introduction for the newcomer to grammar and/or Scots.
The Shetland ForWirds website provides an ideal model for a case study. It is particularly interesting to see how many older grammatical constructions have survived.
These pages by Caroline Macafee incorporating material by A J Aitken, in the Dictionary of the Scots Language website provide a full descriptive grammar of Older Scots (to 1700) and its origins.
This site recognises the diversity of dialects and the fact that there is a continuum between shared Scots/English forms and densely Scots forms. It comes with the caveat that it “concentrates wholly on the Traditional Scots end of that speech continuum.”
Now go on to Unit 18: Literature – poetry.
References
Acknowledgements
Every effort has been made to contact copyright holders. If any have been inadvertently overlooked the publishers will be pleased to make the necessary arrangements at the first opportunity.
Grateful acknowledgement is made to the following sources:
Photograph of tools: Biser Todorov - https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rusty_tools.JPG - This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution Licence http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
Mousa Broch: Image released into the public domain by its author, Langus - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mousa_broch.jpg
Nordquist quote: Nordquist, R. (2019) 'Why Grammar Is a Timeless Subject to Study and Teach', ThoughtCo. August 20 2019. https://www.thoughtco.com/why-does-grammar-matter-1691029
Footprints image: Michael Coghlan - https://www.flickr.com/photos/89165847@N00/18673933103 - This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike Licence http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/
Photograph of a cat: Rob - https://www.flickr.com/photos/7928282@N08/1130446070 - This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Non-commercial-No Derivatives Licence http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.0/
Christina Costie ‘Speech’: 'Speech' by Christina McKay Costie. Used with permission of Nancy Scott.
Oor Wullie statue: Dr. Sylvia Warnecke