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Module 1: Conserving crop diversity
Introduction
Welcome to the first module of this online course. In this module, you will gain an overview of the scientific ideas that underpin the smooth running of a genebank, and take an in-depth look at the FAO’s Genebank Standards and Practical Guide for orthodox seeds.
In later modules, we will break down the ideas introduced here, taking a deep dive into the science of seed longevity and viability, seed development, water activity in seeds, dormancy and germination. The understanding you will gain will not only improve your ability to conserve genetic diversity and supply high quality plant genetic resources to your users; it will also help you play a valuable part in a community of genebank scientists addressing important global challenges.
Throughout the course, we will give you written material and quizzes to help you keep track of how much you have learned. We hope you will find them enjoyable. Working through the written material and quizzes in every module will build your confidence, and give you the knowledge you need to do your job.
At the end of this and every other module, we will give you the opportunity to discover more in our ‘Useful publications’ section.
By the end of this module, you should be able to:
- Explain how genebanks have developed as a result of an historical process, and that they are still developing.
- Discuss key objectives of genebanking, such as the conservation of diversity and avoiding genetic drift from one generation of accessions to the next.
- Define key scientific processes such as seed development, water activity, longevity, dormancy and germination.
- Appreciate how these underlying processes can influence the daily activities of genebanks.
- Know your way round the FAO’s Genebank Standards and the corresponding Practical Guide, and be aware of both their strengths and their limitations.
Overview of genebank processes
The contribution your genebank makes to the successful conservation of crop genetic resources is key to addressing global challenges to food security. Seed storage is an efficient and cost-effective way of conserving plant germplasm ex situ. Over the past half century, the science of seed conservation has developed a well-documented sequence of processes to achieve this.
Figure 1 (above) summarises ‘business as usual’ at a typical seed genebank. When a sample first arrives at the genebank, the genebank manager decides whether or not it should be added to the genebank’s collection as an accession. The sample is assessed based on origin, name and the uniqueness of its traits, as well as whether it has been provided according to relevant international and national laws. If it has been sent from a different country, it may be necessary to grow the original sample under quarantine conditions and check for the presence of disease.
The sample is then multiplied (by growing the seeds and harvesting from the resulting plants) to produce a sufficient number of seeds for storage. Then begins an on-going cycle of drying, cleaning, packing, storage, viability testing and regeneration. The idea is to ensure that the seeds remain viable, and that there are always enough of them in stock to respond to demand from users. Characterization allows scientists to check the unique features of the germplasm in their care, while phytosanitary testing is carried out to eliminate pests.
Many genebanks have medium-term and long-term storage facilities, and all genebanks are encouraged to carry out safety duplication. The active collection (medium-term) is stored at around 5°C, while the base collection (long-term) is usually stored at around -18°C.
The detail varies between seed genebanks, genebanks using in vitro methods, and genebanks conserving crops that show vegetative propagation. However, all genebanks aspire to a cyclical sequence of processing, storage, safety duplication and recovery of vigor, leading to a steady supply of viable germplasm.
Among the worst things that could happen to a genebank’s carefully curated samples is for seeds to perish in storage, due to inappropriate storage conditions. Underpinning the success of the entire conservation stage are two important attributes of seeds, longevity and viability. In this course you will learn about recent discoveries made by scientists working in genebanks: scientists like you. You will benefit from the experience of CGIAR genebanks, in their search for ways to improve the viability and longevity of seeds. After you have finished this course, you may even be able to make your own contribution to our knowledge about the science of seed quality.
Some definitions
Throughout this course, we will be referring to the science that underpins operations used by genebanks. Here are the most important terms:
Seed viability is whether seeds have the potential to germinate or not. This is usually determined by a germination test, although sometimes another viability test can be used e.g. topographical tetrazolium staining test.
Seed longevity is the length of time seeds remain alive in a given storage environment. A measure of longevity is p50: the length of time (‘period’, p) that it takes for the viability of a seed lot to fall to 50% in a given storage environment.
Germination is the development of a new plant from a seed.
Seed moisture content tells us how much of the seed mass is actually water. It is usually expressed as a percentage of the total mass of the seed sample.
Seed water activity is another measure of water inside the seed. It is calculated as the vapor pressure of the sample – in our case of seeds – relative to the vapor pressure of pure water. It is usually expressed on a scale of zero to one. We also refer to water activity as ‘equilibrium relative humidity’ or ‘eRH’, where the scale goes from zero to one hundred (i.e., we multiply the water activity reading by one hundred). Water activity matters, because it can inform us about the physiological processes that may be occurring in the seeds.
Contemporary genebanks have their own specialist vocabulary, operations, and aspirations. Look at the terms below, and make sure you’re familiar with them.
| Term | Meaning |
| Accession | A genebank accession is a sample of plant material that is conserved to represent a particular variety, line or population. |
| Seed lot | A seed lot is a population of seeds, usually originating from the same harvest. |
| Active and base collection | In many genebanks, storage takes place in an active (medium-term) and base (long-term) collection. The active collection is the store from which samples are taken for distribution. The base collection is for long-term conservation. |
| Characterization | The process of characterization allows genebanks to describe accessions accurately, and understand their heritable characteristics. |
| Distribution | Distribution is the process of sharing accessions with users, so that their helpful traits can be harnessed, and new lines developed. |
| Orthodox seeds | Seeds that can be dried, without damage, to low moisture contents are called Orthodox seeds. Over a wide range of storage environments, their longevity increases with reductions in moisture content and temperature. |
| Recalcitrant seeds | Recalcitrant seeds do not survive drying to any large degree, and are therefore not suitable for long-term storage, although the critical moisture level they need for survival varies among species. |
| Intermediate seeds | Intermediate seeds are more tolerant of desiccation than recalcitrant seeds, though their tolerance is much more limited than orthodox seeds. It is not easy to predict how drying and cooling will affect their longevity, and they tend to lose viability more rapidly at low temperature. |
Thirteen thousand years
The crops we grow today are the result of generations of breeding and selection. Our attempts to store seeds go back an equally long way. This page takes you on a journey through the first thirteen thousand years of humanity’s relationship with crops and their seeds.
From 11,000 BCE: Plant domestication begins. Seeds are selected for desirable traits, and landraces passed down generations of farmers. People move seeds round the world as a result of migration, cultural exchanges and changing food preferences.
From 1492 CE: Colonialism speeds up movements of genetic resources as crops are taken from their original settings and shipped across oceans.
From 1768: Collecting takes a more scientific turn when collectors from the UK’s Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew are sent to explore islands of the South Pacific and southern Africa. They return with thousands of plants.
Late 19th century: The start of modern crop breeding: Russia and the United States of America dispatch seed collectors around the globe to collect and study plant diversity. They create seed stores for the resulting collections, and develop improved varieties of existing crops.
1941: During World War II, besieged Russian scientists choose to starve rather than eat any of the 6,000 varieties of seeds they had carefully collected over the previous 50 years; their actions saved the seed bank.
From 1950s: The Green Revolution transforms agriculture and feeds growing populations around the globe. The US opens the first genebank, the National Seed Storage Laboratory, to support the achievements of the Green Revolution.
1961: The UN’s Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) establishes a Panel of Experts on Exploration and Introduction, to develop an international plan for collecting and preserving crop diversity.
1971: CGIAR is founded as a global research partnership. Today, CGIAR Centers store more than 700,000 seed accessions all over the world.
1974: CGIAR’s International Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR) releases a set of standards for long-term conservation of genetic resources. They include detailed advice on the design of long-term storage facilities, and urge genebanks to monitor the viability of seeds in their collections.
From 1983: The FAO’s International Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources calls for an internationally coordinated network of national, regional and international research centers and genebanks.
1994: The FAO and the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IBPGR) jointly publish a new set of professional standards, called the ‘Genebank Standards’, to strengthen national capabilities in the ex situ conservation of plant genetic resources.
2008: In Norway, a Global Seed Vault is created in Svalbard, as an Arctic back-up to be used by genebanks all over the world.
2014: The FAO publishes a revised set of Genebank Standards. They advise on best practice for the conservation of plant genetic resources in seed genebanks, field genebanks, in vitro culture and cryopreservation.
What will happen next? In this course, experts from CGIAR share their experience of best practice. As you work through the material presented here, you will learn about important new discoveries, which could inform the guidance given to genebanks in the future. It is satisfying to know that many of these discoveries were the result of the careful study of genetic resources, collected and conserved in genebanks of the past.
Objectives of genebanks
Farmers face unpredictable challenges: pest or disease infestation, uncertain rainfall or disrupted supplies of agrochemicals due to civil unrest. Somewhere in a genebank, there could be a gene that bestows some form of resistance, drought tolerance or metabolic advantage, which could help address these challenges.
Today’s genebanks underpin global food security by conserving the world’s agricultural genetic diversity – the variety and variability of plants that are used for food and agriculture. They also conserve wild relatives, a source of traits that may have been bred out of crops over millennia of cultivation, but which could potentially be more resilient to the consequences of disease or climate change.
Genebanks also secure the future of agricultural research. They supply the diversity breeders need to develop the crops of the future. People sometimes use the metaphor of a savings bank to describe this: a safe place where researchers can go to retrieve something of value, whenever they need to.
Genebanks are organised into a global network, in which safety duplicates of all accessions, with their full set of associated data, are sent to back-up storage facilities inside the country and beyond its borders. The global seed vault in Svalbard is the destination for many of these. There, the seeds are protected from disease outbreaks, climate change or civil unrest.
Activity 1: Exploring the Svalbard seedbank
Allow 5 minutes for this activity
The Global Svalbard Seed Vault (GSSV) is operated in partnership between the Norwegian government, a regional genebank (NordGen), and a global non-profit organization (The Crop Trust). If you would like to explore the Svalbard facility, follow this link to their virtual seedbank tour.
Notice the long corridor you pass down before reaching the seed vaults. Once inside the seed vaults, walk between the shelves to see how accessions are organised. Can you spot any familiar names?
Technical tip: make sure you open the virtual tour in a new tab or window (right mouse click or long press) to enable you to return easily to this page.
Two genebanks
Genebanks’ ability to support research and contribute to food security requires their seeds to be effectively managed. The seeds they distribute must be well understood, so genebank managers and breeders know how they will germinate. They must have viability and longevity, so breeders know they will germinate when they need them to. They must resemble the original sample as closely as possible, so breeders can be sure what genetic traits they are dealing with. This presents quite a challenge of seed quality management.
During this course, you will watch a series of documentaries about how scientists at two CGIAR Centers are rising to this challenge. Filmed in the International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA) in Nigeria, and the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) in the Philippines, the videos feature Dr Fiona Hay of Aarhus University, Dr Olaniyi Oyatomi of IITA, and scientists and technicians from the two genebanks.
Watch Video 1 (below), which introduces you to the genebanks and scientists who will appear in videos throughout this course. It begins with scientists celebrating what they love about their work. As you watch the video, think about what you love about your own work.
Transcript: Video 1: Two genebanks
Please write your thoughts about the video. How did it make you feel about your own work? You should spend up to ten minutes on this. If your reflections on the video raise any questions, please post them on the Forum, which you’ll find in the left-hand menu, where the course moderators will be able to help you.
When you are ready, press 'reveal' to see our comments.
Discussion
The video touches on some of the values and goals of genebanks and the importance of understanding the science underpinning genebank procedures, in order to achieve those goals. By applying the latest scientific knowledge, you and your own organization will be able to play an important role in the work of a global network of national and international genebanks.
Genetic integrity: a key aim
Maintaining the genetic integrity of accessions is one of the cornerstones of genetic resources conservation. Every population of seeds has a shared genetic profile. Assuming this genetic profile has not been interfered with, individual seeds within that population are said to have genetic integrity. The genes they carry are as close as possible to those in the original sample, and distinct from the genotypes of other accessions.
Genetic integrity can be at risk at all stages of processing by genebanks, so genebanks must put careful handling procedures in place, in order to avoid the inadvertent introduction of new genes into the population. In order for a genebank to support agricultural research and global food security, it is important to share exactly the same germplasm as the original collected material.
Genetic integrity is threatened by mislabeling, pollen contamination, seed contamination, or unintended selection over many cycles of regeneration. It can also be threatened if the viability of seeds drops so low that only a limited number of seeds are left, resulting in a reduction of genetic variation within the sample.
One natural process that can threaten genetic integrity is genetic drift. Genetic drift is the change in frequency of an existing gene variant in a population, due to random chance. Genetic drift may cause gene variants to disappear completely, and thereby reduce genetic variation. It may also cause initially rare gene variants (alleles) to become much more frequent. Genetic drift can be beneficial in nature - it drives evolution - but in genebanks it must be avoided at all cost, since it can lead to loss of genetic integrity.
The science of seed storage
The following animation tells the story of a genebank manager’s efforts to ensure the seeds she sends out are viable. Breeders have an obvious need for seeds that will germinate, but seed viability is just as important for any user of genetic resources, whether they are a researcher in a university, a regional crop improvement network, an NGO, a community genebank or a farmer.
The animation reminds you of some of the processes genebanks use to conserve seeds, and introduces some of the scientific principles underlying them. You are probably already familiar with the processes, but perhaps not so familiar with some of the science. As you watch the animation, think about the biological processes that a genebank is relying on when they carry out these everyday routines.
Transcript: Video 2: Overview of genebank operations
The seeds of hope.
Conserved in the 1990’s, the traits of these seeds could solve some of today’s problems.
But the seeds have been in storage for a very long time.
Alessia, the genebank manager wants to share a sample with breeders.
But if the seeds are to be useful for breeding, Alessia knows she must ensure they are viable.
And that means applying the latest seed science.
Because these seeds have been ageing, even under the dry and cold conditions in the active store ...
The science of seed quality begins in the field.
As flowers develop into seeds, a lot of biochemical changes are going on.
Understanding the science of how seeds develop can help you improve your seeds’ chances of survival in the genebank:
How genes control the way the seeds develop …
The differences environmental conditions can make …
How to work out the best time to harvest …
In this course, you’ll learn about scientific discoveries that throw light on these important issues.
And can make improvements to seed quality management.
Once the seeds are checked into the genebank, time is of the essence.
The ageing process has already begun.
Alessia’s team must move quickly, to ensure the seeds are sorted before they lose viability.
In this course, you’ll use simple calculations to help keep your seeds in tip-top condition.
What can science tell us about managing seed quality in the drying room?
Should we dry seeds of some species at higher temperature for the first few days?
How can we make the most of movements of water into and out of the seeds?
And how does the amount of water within a seed affect which chemical reactions can go on inside that seed?
These are important issues, because water is crucial to the seeds’ viability.
Once they go into storage, these seeds will be kept in a state of suspended animation.
It’s amazing to think that inside these sealed bags are living things that must grow again, perhaps in many years’ time.
What’s keeping them alive?
Low temperatures and low moisture content put the brakes on ageing.
Giving the seeds the best chances of survival in the cold, dry store.
But once they come out of storage, the seeds will need higher temperatures and higher moisture content, to germinate.
Alessia knows the breeders she sends her seeds to, will depend on those seeds being able to grow.
So how can she check that her seeds have the potential to germinate?
And do so in sufficient number to be useful to breeders?
Viability testing gives her vital information about how well they are likely to grow.
As you work through this course, you’ll discover some underlying patterns in seed viability, and predictions you can make.
So you’ll be able to work out when you need to replenish your base stock, or the seeds you have available to send out to breeders.
But not all seeds germinate that easily.
Some wild species have a natural block that prevents germination.
It’s called dormancy.
In the wild, dormancy helps.
It ensures seeds do not grow in the wrong place or at the wrong time.
Like in a giraffe’s stomach!
Dormancy can help wild seeds to spread far from the parent plant.
But it’s not what you want in a genebank.
So how can you overcome this natural block to germination?
Again, understanding the science can help.
You’ll discover useful dormancy-breaking techniques.
So you can be sure your seeds will germinate when you want them to!
Alessia knows that the seeds in her genebank are only as useful as their genes.
It’s not enough to be able to regenerate the seeds.
What Alessia needs is for all new generations to continue to contain the same beneficial genes as the original ones.
This is called genetic integrity.
In future years, Alessia will compare every new generation of seeds to an original sample.
To ensure genes for beneficial traits do not get lost.
So with a bit of science, and a lot of record-keeping …
Alessia can be sure she is sharing exactly the same germplasm that originally arrived at the genebank many years ago.
The germplasm that breeders need.
When the time comes for you to distribute your own seeds, the science of seed quality management can give you peace of mind.
So when you send out seeds to breeders, you too can be sure your seeds are of the best quality.
This animation gives you an overview of the key processes in seed storage, and the biological processes they rely upon. Use the note-writing box below to write down what has struck you most about those biological processes, and why this science matters.
When you are ready, press 'reveal' to see our comments.
Discussion
The animation shows how seed quality management protects seeds through a number of processes, based on the underlying biology of the seed. At the drying phase, movement of water out of the seed is key. In the storage phase, whether this is over the short, medium or long term, seed longevity comes into play. When you carry out viability testing to see how well seeds germinate, you may need to consider natural mechanisms such as dormancy. And when replenishing your inventory (regeneration), you are considering seed development.
Seed survivors
The successful storage of seeds relies on certain aspects of their natural behavior. Imagine what would happen if a seed had a tendency to germinate under any conditions, no matter how cold or dark. They might randomly sprout whilst still in storage, then quickly perish. Or if a seed were not already adapted to remain viable for long periods in the soil, a seed genebank would be unlikely to be successful in storing that species ex situ. Fortunately for us, many plant seeds do have this capacity to survive a long time.
Case study: seed survivors
Perhaps one of the oldest seeds to successfully germinate is a date palm, found in the Masada Fortress archaeological site near the Dead Sea in Israel in the 1960s. The fort was built in about 30 BCE. Three seeds were excavated from this site and planted, and one of them germinated. According to carbon dating, the seeds were two thousand years old.
Another seed survivor is the sacred lotus. Some of these seeds were excavated from a dry lake-bed in China in the 18th century. Two centuries later, some of these seeds, radiocarbon dated as being 1,300 years old, were coaxed to successful germination by British botanists.
You can find out more about these examples of seed longevity in the references in the ‘Useful publications’ section at the end of this module.
So far, the most spectacular examples of seed survival over centuries and millennia have been seeds stored under natural conditions. Gene banking as a modern professional endeavor has only been going for a few decades, so it has a long way to go before it can match these records. However, seed science has revealed predictable aspects that affect seed longevity in storage, and new discoveries continue to improve the longevity of seeds in genebanks. The better you understand these underlying biological processes, the more successful your attempts to store your own seeds will be.
Factors influencing seed longevity
The ability of seeds to germinate diminishes over time in storage. If you take seeds out of storage straight after they went in, they show vigorous germination. After a period spent in storage, the seeds start to show signs of aging. Germination becomes slower and less uniform, and there is a higher chance of abnormal growth. Some seeds age more quickly than others, but eventually, none of the seeds will be able to germinate. Figure 2 (below) shows how this happens:
The time it takes for seeds to become non-viable not only varies between individuals, it also varies between species. It can be influenced by storage conditions, but also conditions while seeds are waiting to be harvested and processed, or while they are lying in the drying room. The conditions under which a seed is harvested, processed, dried and stored, can all have an impact on its longevity.
By studying the behavior of different types of seeds, scientists are building up evidence of how, by making small adjustments to conditions during processing, such as temperature and humidity, it is possible to improve longevity. Their promising discoveries are the focus of this course.
There are other factors that can influence seed longevity. The presence or absence of pests and disease is perhaps the most obvious. This takes us into the realms of phytosanitary science, a well-established approach, which genebanks already use to safeguard seed quality. There are other educational packages about these, so they are not the primary concern of this course.
At the most fundamental level, there is tantalizing evidence for the underlying genetic influences on longevity. This allows scientists to glimpse the possibility of using genes to control biochemical pathways that could improve the viability and longevity of crops. If you are interested in finding out more about one of these studies, there is a link in the ‘Useful publications’ section of this module.
The Seed Information Database
In this course, we take a deep dive into the type of scientific knowledge that will help you make better decisions when planning strategies for storage. Fortunately, you are not alone. You have access to knowledge generated by many scientists before you. A particularly useful resource is the Seed Information Database developed by the Millennium Seed Bank, part of the Royal Botanic Gardens in the United Kingdom.
Activity 2: exploring the Seed Information Database
Allow ten minutes for this activity.
If you are not already familiar with it, link to the search function of the Seed Information Database. Type in the genus and species name of soybean, Glycine max, or choose another crop you are interested in. This will interrogate the database and give you information that researchers have discovered about the crop, such as seed weight, oil content, protein content and so on. As you work through the course, you will become familiar with the different types of evidence you can find in the Seed Information Database, and the helpful predictions this evidence enables you to make.
Use the note-writing box below to record what you have learned from the Seed Information Database so far. Your notes are for your own personal development, and will not be shared with moderators or colleagues on the course.
Keeping records
This course is primarily concerned with science, not management. However, it is worth remembering that you are part of a community of scientists, who all play a part in a chain of processes in which genebanks receive and store germplasm, and make sure it is available as part of the global system of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture (PGRFA), to be used by breeders to develop new varieties.
At every stage, information is added about the accession. For instance, when you carry out characterization or viability testing, and record your results, other scientists will be able to benefit from the knowledge you have generated. Figure 3 (below) shows the central role a data management system plays in the flow of germplasm and associated information through a genebank.
Look at Figure 3 and identify which processes you are involved with in your work. What information do those upstream of you in the process give you about the seeds they pass on to you? Now consider what information scientists further downstream would find useful, alongside the PGRFA you supply them with.
Data management can be overlooked in some national genebanks where resources are scarce, but this interdependency of genebank operations means that a robust information system is crucial. If you would like to find out more about data management, a new CGIAR course is being developed on this topic.
Activity 3: Useful data
Allow five minutes for this activity.
Every genebank process generates useful data. Use the note-writing box below to reflect on what kind of information it would be useful to record from a process such as collection, characterization, viability testing, regeneration or storage.
Once you have thought about it yourself, click on 'reveal' below to show our suggestions:
Discussion
| Process | Data |
Collecting in situ |
Donor or origin Taxonomy Habitat Status Passport data
|
Characterization |
Trait information Germination behavior
|
Viability testing |
Viability tests used Results Seeds used
|
Multiplication and regeneration |
Seed quantity Cultivation Location Dates
|
Medium term storage |
Location Quantity Recipient(s) Seeds sent
|
My genebank and me
In this course, we encourage you to reflect on your own work. Writing a blog is a great way to do this. Blogging allows you to deepen your understanding of ideas in the course, and apply them to your own situation. As you go through the course, in every module we will encourage you to add to your blog. Your blog will become a rich resource for you to refer back to in future.
Blogging helps you to relate what you learn on the course to your day-to-day work. The course moderators and your colleagues on this course can read it, but it cannot be read by any of your colleagues or managers outside this course. We encourage you to read other people’s blogs: you will learn from each other.
For your first blog entry, take another look at Figure 3, and write about which stage of the genebank workflow your work is chiefly concerned with. Do you know who is involved with all the other stages, and exactly what they do, and why? If you would like to share your ideas with other participants and the moderators of the course, we encourage you to write a post in the Forum.
Technical tip
We recommend you open this in a new tab or window (right mouse click or long press) to enable you to easily return to this page.
The FAO’s Genebank Standards
If you work in a national genebank, your job is globally important. It relates directly to the UN’s sustainable development goals, including the elimination of hunger. The FAO understands that scientists working in national genebanks are in a unique position to make a difference to the conservation of genetic diversity. But the FAO also recognizes that for breeders to be able to use genetic resources, it is important for them to meet certain standards.
The FAO’s Genebank Standards are a benchmark for scientific and technical practice. They are non-binding and voluntary. They are not laws - if you’re interested in the laws associated with genebanking, CGIAR offer a separate course on this.
Now let’s get familiar with the Genebank Standards. Follow this link then have a look at the contents page. You will see the contents are broken down by conservation approach and then by process (such as acquisition, storage, viability monitoring). For each process, the Standards discuss differences in context, technical considerations, and contingencies you can adopt if your genebank does not have optimal facilities. This provides a large and comprehensive resource.
In Video 3 (below), Dr Janny van Beem from the Crop Trust discusses the principles behind the Genebank Standards. Janny works with national genebanks to develop evidence-based sets of practices that will enhance the quality of genetic resources within those national genebanks. These are known as ‘quality management systems’ (QMS). As you watch the video, think about what Janny says about the connections between the Genebank Standards and quality management, and how you too can ensure the quality of seeds in your own genebank.
Transcript: Video 3: The FAO genebank standards
Hello, I'm Janny van Beem. I'm the Genebank Partnership Coordinator for the Crop Trust. My role is to coordinate key activities under the Global Gene Bank Partnership. And I basically focus on quality, risk, and knowledge management.
The Genebank Standards and the Practical Guides that are associated to them provide consistency and reliability in the conservation of plant genetic resources.
They also provide a benchmark for quality, safety, efficiency, and performance, which ultimately facilitates acquisition and distribution and maximizes the longevity of the seed.
There are several limitations regarding the implementation of standards. The first one being the cost - because it can require significant time, resources and expertise to be able to adopt the standards.
And the second one is the generality of standards. Sometimes documents such as standards do not provide necessary information for a wide range of very unique species or pollination systems.
And it therefore becomes the responsibility of the genebank to develop their own standards for very specific crops and unique germplasm.
Genebank staff can approach the implementation of standards by first evaluating whether the standards can be applied equally to different crops, originating in different geographical regions or different biological statuses and pollination systems.
They could consider whether alternative, more detailed methodologies are needed to meet the intended outcome.
For example, having seed that will germinate after 50 years in storage.
And this is where the implementation of a quality management system comes in.
So a quality management system is a structured system that helps genebanks ensure that they meet user satisfaction and also ensures that they meet regulatory standards.
It encompasses policies, processes, procedures, and resources needed to implement their quality management effectively with gene bank activities.
The Genebank Standards themselves serves as guides that help the genebank structure its quality management.
So the Standards and the Practical Guides set out the criteria for quality, and define the processes and practices a genebank must follow.
So in adopting these standards, the genebank then essentially builds a quality management system around this established framework, by first mapping all its activities.
I think that genebank operational map is a first very important step that needs to be taken in the implementation of a quality management system.
And so the genebank would start looking at its processes and procedures, and what gaps there are between what is effectively being carried out and what should be carried out according to the Genebank Standards.
Scientists of national programs have a significant impact on the knowledge and expertise of the global community.
They consistently participate in global research collaborations. They publish their findings on unique crop species.
They focus on environmental issues such as climate change. They conduct fundamental research with us and other entities.
And that leads to a better understanding of seed conservation.
While national scientists have global relevance, they also address very specific regional issues such as adaptability and customer preferences.
The global scientific community is increasingly interconnected and national programs, especially national gene banks, are an integral part of this dynamic scientific ecosystem.
My advice for a scientist in a national agricultural research organization, who is aspiring to improve their seed quality management, is to first of all know your crops.
Know them profoundly by learning as much as possible about the biology of the crop, the origin of the accessions and adaptability.
A genebank can be very successful in conserving, regenerating and distributing its germplasm.
Another advice that I would give when improving seed quality, for example, is to stay abreast of the science, the scientific findings in the literature regarding seeds, and to seek out the many resources available to increase the staff's knowledge on seed harvesting, for example, seed drying, packing, dormancy breaking procedures.
There's always science evolving about those topics.
So this knowledge, this constant staying abreast of the knowledge, may provide the genebanks with resources to increase seed longevity.
Please write your comments on what Janny says. How does she suggest you should approach the Genebank Standards? How do you think her advice could be adopted in your own genebank? You should spend up to ten minutes on this. If your reflections on the video raise any questions, please post them on the Forum, which you’ll find at the bottom of the left-hand menu, where the course moderators will be able to help you.
When you are ready, press 'reveal' to see our comments.
Discussion
The Genebank Standards provide a structure for seed quality management. They were developed using scientific evidence and general principles. However, these general guidelines are not specific to individual species, and other sources of information may be revealing about an unusual species, and how it behaves. It is a good idea to consult other sources alongside the Genebank Standards, and to keep up with developments in seed science. A national genebank can ensure that the procedures they carry out align with the Genebank Standards by developing a quality management system: an explicit set of instructions for procedures to be carried out, and useful information to be recorded.
The FAO’s Practical Guide
FAO has developed a series of ‘Practical Guides’ to be used as companion volumes to the Genebank Standards. Here, we are focusing on the ‘Practical Guide for the Conservation of orthodox seeds in seed genebanks’, rather than the separate guides which exist for conservation in field genebanks and in vitro culture.
In the Practical Guide, the steps in a genebank’s workflows are broken down into a logical sequence. At each stage, guidance is given on the decisions involved. The Practical Guide gives summary charts for the respective action steps, and can be used as a handbook for routine genebank operations by genebank technicians carrying out their day-to-day activities. It can also be used by genebanks as a basis for developing standard operating procedures and quality management systems.
With so many resources available, you may be wondering what extra you will learn on this course. The answer is that this course will provide you with guidance on questions about ‘why’ a particular approach will work on a particular species, rather than ‘how’ to follow procedures. This will empower you to make informed decisions and ultimately, perhaps, contribute to the science of seed conservation, which underpins the future evolution of the Genebank Standards.
Discussion point: an unknown accession
This is the first discussion-based scenario of the course.
Throughout the course you will be using discussions like this to explore real-world scenarios that are commonly encountered by national genebanks. You will collaborate with your course colleagues in a designated discussion space. Since you all have different experience and come from different backgrounds, this is a great opportunity to learn from each other.
These in-module discussions do not require essay-style answers: rather, you are expected to share your responses and read others’ opinions. If you agree with what other students have written in the discussion space, please say so. If you don’t, please say that too. Either way, make sure you justify your response. And, as in any discussion, it is important to show sensitivity and respect towards your colleagues’ suggestions.
Participation in this and the other discussions within the course is essential for you to gain your end-of-module badge and completion certificate. You should use these discussion spaces to:
- Explore common dilemmas in seed quality management
- Listen to the opinions of other learners and the facilitator
- Come to a collective view on how to proceed when faced with this type of scenario in your own work
Discussion space: an unknown accession
Imagine your genebank has received some material of a species that you’ve never encountered at the genebank before, even though it is cultivated in your country. What do you do next? Should you apply the Genebank Standards uncritically, and immediately start drying and processing the seeds for storage in the genebank cold rooms? What additional information might you look for, and where would you look for it?
Discussion spaces:
As you move through the course, you may wish to return to the discussion spaces to add further posts or to read what other learners have posted.
You can access the discussion spaces from the main menu on the left-hand side of this page.
Quality management systems
The Genebank Standards and Practical Guides are not the only advice available to you. Chances are that your own national genebank may be developing its own guidelines. Agricultural research organizations all over the world are starting to implement quality management systems and standard operating procedures in order to continuously drive improvements and meet customer and regulatory requirements.
Standard operating procedures are written instructions outlining how specific tasks are carried out within the genebank. They are being developed across all the main stages in germplasm management, including collecting new in situ diversity, post-entry quarantine, seed processing (e.g., cleaning, drying, testing and packing), conservation and monitoring in the active and base storage facilities, and regeneration to replenish accessions with low stock or low viability. Standard operating procedures help make operations more consistent, efficient and compliant with national and international policies.
A quality management system requires a robust data management system to collect, store and share information in a way that is accessible and supports operational efficiency. By using barcode or QR code technology for tracking accessions across procedures, and using a global platform to share accession data, information management systems contribute to raising genebank standards. In addition, genebanks must withstand natural disasters, acts of war, fire or national emergencies, so a sound quality management system includes mechanisms for identifying and mitigating risks and safety duplication of collections. It is essential that knowledge is shared and passed on, so a quality management system also includes staff development in the form of training and succession planning.
With so many resources available, you may be wondering what extra you will learn on this course. The answer is that this course will provide you with guidance on questions about ‘why’ a particular approach will work on a particular species, rather than ‘how’ to follow procedures. This will empower you to make informed decisions and ultimately, perhaps, contribute to the science of seed conservation, which underpins the future evolution of the Genebank Standards.
Key words and concepts
Throughout this course, we will offer you quizzes to help you keep track of how much you have learned. We hope you will find them enjoyable. The quizzes within modules are not graded, and your results will not be shared with colleagues, but engaging with them is crucial to help you develop your understanding. It is important to check your answers and read the feedback we have written: this feedback is often the best way to learn.
Working through the quizzes in every module will build your confidence until, by the end of the course, you will be ready to tackle the end-of-course quiz. Unlike the quizzes within modules, this final quiz will count towards your badge and statement of participation.
Have a go at this quiz, testing your understanding of key ideas in module 1.
The Forum
Throughout this course, the Forum gives you the opportunity to meet course organizers, ask them questions, and discuss what you have learned so far. The Forum is also the place where you can see other students’ questions and comments, and the experts’ responses to them, so it is a good idea to get into the habit of going to the Forum regularly, using the menu on the left-hand side.
Live events
A live event will accompany this module and module 2. Look out for emails from the course organizers about when this will happen. It is important to make sure that you get through all the online material for each module before attending its live event. At each live event you will have the opportunity to interact in real-time with the course organizers, guest experts and other students on this course. Some of the questions that you and other students have posted in the Forum will also be answered in the live event.
Any questions?
If you have any queries or reflections, there is a designated Q&A strand within the Forum, where you can post your questions. The course organizers will either answer on the Forum, or in the next live event. You can post your questions at any time: the earlier the better, to give the organizers time to plan the live sessions.
Technical tip
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Summary
You have reached the end of the online learning component of module 1. In this section, you have familiarized yourself with key vocabulary and some of the basic processes we will cover in this course. You have seen how important the work of your national genebank is, and discovered what support is provided by the FAO’s Genebank Standards and other sources of information. In the next online learning section, module 2, you will gain a deeper understanding of the scientific processes that influence seeds’ longevity and viability.
Module 1 at a glance:
- The overall objectives of genebanks are to address global challenges to food security and conserve global biodiversity.
- There is an extensive, inter-connected system of global genebanks, including the seed vault in Svalbard.
- The success of genebanking depends on our ability to manipulate underlying biological processes within seeds, such as germination, longevity, water activity and dormancy.
- There are helpful resources you can turn to, such as the Seed Information Database, in order to find out more about these processes in particular species.
- The FAO’s Genebank Standards and Practical Guides give you procedural information; however, they only give general information so it is important to seek other sources.
- Deepening your understanding of scientific processes inside seeds is important to inform your decisions and improve your ability to safeguard the seeds in your care.
Useful publications
If you were interested in some of the issues in this module, you might like to download and read these articles, which we have selected for you.
Curry, H. (2022). The history of seed banking and the hazards of backup. In Halewood, M., Noriega, I.L., & Louafi, S. (Eds.). (2012). Social Studies of Science Jun 29; 52(5): pp. 664–688.
Available at: https://doi.org/ 10.1177/ 03063127221106728.
Daws, M., Davies, J., Vaes, E., van Gelder, H., Pritchard, H. (2007). Two-hundred-year seed survival of Leucospermum and two other woody species from the Cape Floristic region, South Africa. Seed Science Research, 17(2), pp. 73-79.
Available at: https://doi.org/ 10.1017/ S0960258507707638.
FAO (2014). Genebank Standards for Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. Rev. Ed. Rome.
Available at: https://www.fao.org/ 4/ i3704e/ i3704e.pdf.
FAO (2022). Practical guide for the application of the Genebank Standards for Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture: conservation in seed genebanks. Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, Rome.
Available at: https://doi.org/ 10.4060/ cc0021en.
Hay, F., Whitehouse, K., Ellis, R., Sackville Hamilton, R., Lusty, C., Ndjiondjop M-N., Tia, D., Wenzl, P., Santos, L., Yazbek, M., Azevedo, V., Peerzada, O., Abberton, M., Oyatomi, O., de Guzman, F., Capilit, G., Muchugi, A., Kinyanjui, Z. (2021). CGIAR genebank viability data reveal inconsistencies in seed collection management. Global Food Security, 30, 100557.
Available at: https://doi.org/ 10.1016/ j.gfs.2021.100557.
Loskutov, I.G. (2020). Vavilov Institute (VIR): historical aspects of international cooperation for plant genetic resources. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution, 67, pp. 2237–2253.
Available at: https://doi.org/ 10.1007/ s10722-020-00979-4.
Sallon, S., Solowey, E., Chhen, Y., Korchinsky, R., Egli, M., Woodhatch, I., Simchoni, O., Kislev, M. (2008). Germination, genetics, and growth of an ancient date seed. Science, 22(5909) pp. 1789-90.
Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ 18556553/.
Shen-Miller, J., Mudgett, M., Schopf, J., Clarke, S., Berger, R. (1995). Exceptional seed longevity and robust growth: ancient sacred lotus from China. American Journal of Botany, pp. 1367-1380.
Available at: https://doi.org/ 10.1002/ j.1537-2197.1995.tb12673.x.
Zohary, D., Spiegel-Roy, P., (1975). Beginnings of fruit growing in the Old World. Science, Vol 187, Issue 4174, pp. 319-327.
Available at: https://doi.org/ 10.1126/ science.187.4174.319.