Use 'Print preview' to check the number of pages and printer settings.
Print functionality varies between browsers.
Printable page generated Saturday, 4 May 2024, 1:01 AM
Adolescent and Youth Reproductive Health: 11. Care During Pregnancy, Labour, and the Postnatal Period
Study Session 11 Care During Pregnancy, Labour and the Postnatal Period
Introduction
Every pregnancy is an unique experience for a woman. During this unique period, a woman has many emotional and physical needs that must be addressed in order for her to have a happy, comfortable and safe pregnancy which culminates in the birth of a healthy baby. You have already learned how you can help ensure these needs are met in the Antenatal Care, Labour and Delivery Care and Postnatal Care Modules. However, young women who are pregnant may have different needs from those of older women and you need to know these special needs in order to effectively help young women during this period. In this session you will learn to identify the special emotional and physical needs of young women during pregnancy, labour and the postpartum period and you will learn how to develop strategies to address their needs.
Learning Outcomes for Study Session 11
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
11.1 Define and use correctly all of the key words printed in bold. (SAQ 11.1)
11.2 Describe the physical and emotional needs of young women during pregnancy, childbirth and the postpartum period. (SAQs 11.1, 11.2 and 11.3)
11.3 Explain how to develop strategies to respond to the special needs of young women during pregnancy, childbirth, and the postpartum period. (SAQs 11.2 and 11.3)
11.1 Care for young women during pregnancy
What are the risks for a young woman’s health if she becomes pregnant?
If a young woman becomes pregnant, she could face many health risks including malnutrition and hypertension (raised blood pressure). Then there is the danger that she has a premature baby, a prolonged and obstructed labour leading to complications like fistula and/or that her baby is stillborn.
What is the reason for these problems?
As you learned in Study Session 3 of this Module, young women may not have completed their growth so the pelvis (the bone surrounding the birth canal) is often still growing and immature which makes giving birth difficult. They may not have enough food and when the baby starts to grow, mother and baby will be in competition for what little food there is, so both will be malnourished.
In Study Session 13 (Providing Focused Antenatal Care) of the Antenatal Care Module you learned that pregnancy is particularly risky for girls who are less than 16 years old. For them, in particular, childbirth may be difficult if the pelvis is still growing because it will be too small for the baby to pass through it easily (remember this is called obstructed labour).
In areas where health facilitates are inaccessible, the young woman may face an unassisted and lengthy labour which can lead to tearing or rupture of the uterus. She may die of blood loss (haemorrhage).
During a lengthy labour, the baby’s head can stretch or tear the vagina causing a hole between the vagina and the bladder or between the vagina and the rectum. This hole is called a fistula.
If the baby can’t pass out of the body a cut in the woman’s abdomen will be made so that the baby can be lifted out of the uterus. The doctors call this operation a Caesarean section.
To avoid complications in pregnancy young women need to go for antenatal care as soon as they know they are pregnant. If you are aware of any pregnant young women in your area, you should encourage them to follow a schedule of regular antenatal care visits. If they are under 16 years old you should refer them to a higher facility for antenatal care.
What is the basic number of visits provided with focused antenatal care (FANC)?
A woman should commonly have four FANC visits and the first visit should ideally be during the first trimester (the first three months of the pregnancy) but certainly by 16 weeks. The second visit should be made during the fourth to sixth months of pregnancy. Third and fourth visits should be in the eighth and ninth months respectively.
Activity 11.1 The FANC plan
Do you remember what you should do for the pregnant women during each visit?
In Table 11.1 write down the specific activities you should carry out at each visit.
Here are some principles that will help you complete the table.
- Every pregnancy is a risk.
- Antenatal care (ANC) should be used as a main gate for health promotion and disease prevention.
- ANC must be used as an opportunity to detect and treat existing problems.
- ANC must be used to prepare pregnant women, their partners and families to plan the birth preparedness and complication readiness plan.
You should also remember that the ANC service should be individualised: every woman should be counselled and treated according to her specific needs.
| First visit (when pregnancy is confirmed) | Second visit (4–6 months) | Third visit (8 months) | Fourth visit (9 months) |
|---|---|---|---|
|
When you have completed Table 11.1 refer to Table 11.2 at the end of this study session to see the things that you need to do at each visit.
When you are planning the care for a pregnant young woman, you should follow the same guidelines as for any other pregnant woman (i.e. use the chart that is shown in Table 11.2). However, you should give much more attention to your counselling role as a young woman has more specialised needs than an adult.
On what specific issues should you counsel a pregnant woman? (You have learned this in the Antenatal Care Module.)
You should educate and counsel pregnant women on the following topics:
- Protecting themselves from malaria by sleeping under an insecticide-treated bed net (ITN)
- Eating a balanced diet with nutritious food (refer to the Nutrition Module)
- Prevention of mother to child transmission of HIV (PMTCT)
- Personal hygiene
- Taking adequate rest
- Breastfeeding
- Harmful traditional practices (HTPs) that relate to pregnancy, birth and care of the baby
- Warning signs and danger symptoms during pregnancy.
All these topics are discussed in the Antenatal Care Module.
Stop reading and think about whether there are specific HTPs practised in your community that could damage the health of the pregnant mother or the baby.
If the young woman is in a polygamous marriage she may not be given enough to eat; malnutrition is damaging to her and her baby. The baby will be at risk if colostrum (the thin, watery fluid produced by her breasts during the first three days of her new baby’s life) is thrown away and the baby is fed other liquids and honey. You may have thought of other HTPs.
You need to counsel young woman on danger symptoms without frightening them. They should know the symptoms for which they should seek immediate help. Give reassurance and tell them about only the danger symptoms that it is appropriate to know about for the stage of their pregnancy.
What are the danger symptoms they should seek help for in the period up to 20 weeks?
Symptoms that are dangerous and should be taken seriously and responded to include vaginal bleeding, persistent vomiting, fever, no change in abdominal growth.
What are the additional danger symptoms they should seek help for in the period after 20 weeks?
Convulsions, leakage of amniotic fluid, headache, burning epigastric pain(see Figure 11.1).
Every woman should deliver with the assistance of a skilled attendant. Although you can provide good help during childbirth you need to make every effort to enable young women to deliver in a higher health facility. Pregnant adolescents who are under 16 years of age are at particularly high risk and should always be referred for delivery to the next higher level health facility (Figure 11.2).
During antenatal visits you should help young women to develop a birth plan that focuses on:
- What to do if any danger symptoms occur
- How they will get to the healthcare facility
- When to check in with the health facility if they suspect that labour is beginning
- Who will provide physical and emotional support during labour.
You also need to prepare the young woman and her supporter(s) by giving them all the necessary information and techniques to make labour more comfortable.
11.2 Physical and emotional needs of adolescents during labour and delivery
The birthing process is both physically and emotionally demanding. The woman’s body goes through transformations of tissues and organs and tremendous changes in hormones that affect every bodily system. The combination of these changes can have a negative impact on a woman’s emotions and this can be particularly true for young women. These emotions range from anticipation and anxiety during early labour to fear, a sense of being overwhelmed, loss of control, and exhaustion leading to a desire to end the process immediately towards the end of labour.
The cardinal rule for birthing care for a young woman is Never leave her alone. Support, comfort, and explanations of what is happening or going to happen will break the cycle of fear that produces tension and thereby increases the intensity of pain.
The young mother in labour also has physical feelings and needs, which could include finding a comfortable position, experiencing thirst, feeling too hot or too cold. You should try to identify her physical needs and respond to them. You should explain the different options and allow her to choose a comfortable position. Some women prefer kneeling; some want to squat and others may choose a lying position. A labouring woman who is thirsty could be allowed to take sips of fluid. If she feels too cold she needs to be covered with clean clothing.
11.2.1 Your role in caring for young women during labour
What proportion of Ethiopian women deliver in health facilities? (You learned this in the Antenatal Care Module.)
Out of 110 women, only six give birth at health facilities.
Stop reading for a moment and think about this from your own experience. Why do most women deliver at home even though there are health facilities that provide safe and clean delivery services?
One of the major reasons for women not coming to health facilities for delivery services is the lack of emotional care during labour. At home they are surrounded by lots of caring people, both family members and neighbours, who can give emotional support during labour. This is very important for a woman who is in labour pain. For them, the emotional care is superior to any other care they might think of. When they decide to come to your health post, it means they will miss all the emotional care they could get just by being at home. In addition to the medical skills that you need to have to assist safe and clean delivery (remember you learned this in the Labour and Delivery Care Module), you should have and develop skills to provide emotional care for a labouring young woman.
To successfully provide support for young women during labour requires patience, understanding, compassion and caring. You need to create an atmosphere of inclusion involving their family and/or supporter(s). You will also increase everyone’s confidence and trust in you if you offer explanations for what the woman is experiencing and for all your actions. Give plenty of reassurance and encouragement. When preparing to perform examinations and procedures, explain to the young woman and her supporter(s) what you will be doing and why; perform manoeuvres slowly and gently. If you need help or cooperation from the labouring young woman or her helper, explain what you need them to do and why. Use firm but caring speech to get the young woman’s attention. Shouting is never acceptable.
11.3 Care during the postpartum period
You have learned in detail what care you should provide to the woman and her baby during the postpartum period in the Postnatal Care Module. We will not repeat all these things here but encourage you to refer to the Postnatal Care Module. In this session we will teach you briefly the points that you should give extra attention to when caring for young mothers.
11.3.1 Needs of young women during the postpartum period
What is the postpartum period? (You have learned this in the Postnatal Care Module.)
The period of six weeks following birth is called the postpartum period.
This period of six weeks following birth is a period of dramatic change and tremendous adjustment that affects the young mother physically and emotionally. The demands of mothering are high, and the young mother will need support from those closest to her so that she does not feel overwhelmed and tempted to give up. It is a critical time for learning and guidance, yet this must be given in a way that does not make the young mother feel incompetent. You should help and guide her to carry out such tasks as she is able within the limits of safety; praise her efforts; and offer corrections as ‘tips’ for doing something. For example, if you say: ‘Your baby is attaching to the breast well but her nose is obstructed so you must move her face like this’ it sounds like a correction, Whereas if you say, ‘Your baby is attaching to the breast well and if you move her face like this she will be able to feed even better because her nose is not obstructed’ it sounds like praise followed by a ‘tip’.
Young mothers now have the compound challenge of continuing to establish their own identity while they adjust to the role of being a mother. Immediately after the birth keep the mother and baby together as much as possible, particularly for the first hour. Suggest that she should touch the baby’s head, feel molding, and count the fingers and toes.
Later you should assist the mother to breastfeed successfully with correct attachment. Show her how to take the baby off the breast, how to keep the baby’s nose unobstructed and how to establish comfortable positions for feeding. Check the newborn gets the first BCG and polio vaccines.
Before you leave make sure both the mother and those who are supporting her understand how to recognise the signs of postpartum complications and when to return to the health post.
As the young mother tries to cope with the demands of infant care (e.g. sleep deprivation, physical discomfort), the psychological shift into a role of greater responsibility, and rapidly altering hormone levels, dramatic mood swings characteristic of postpartum blues may occur.
What does the term postpartum blues mean? (You have learned this in the Postnatal Care Module.)
Postpartum blues range from being easily upset and having mild feelings of being ‘down’ and weepy with unexplained sadness to more profound depression with frequent bouts of crying for no obvious reasons.
Postpartum blues usually occur around the third to fifth day after birth. It is normal for all women to experience a sense of loss after birth, but it may be more acute for young mothers. If she and those who support her are aware that this is normal behaviour it may help her to overcome these difficulties quickly.
11.3.2 Your role in addressing the needs of young mothers during the postpartum period
Your primary goal should be to help the young mother successfully take on the role and responsibilities of mothering. She may need close monitoring to keep her focused on the wide range and seemingly endless tasks involved in caring for a baby. The following is a checklist of actions for you to ensure that you give full support to each young mother.
- The young mother should be observed for the first six hours after birth. Make sure she has someone reliable who will remain with her.
- You should schedule a home visit for follow-up for one and six weeks postpartum. i.e. you should make a home visit at the 7th and 42nd day after birth.
- During the first postpartum visit (made during the first week after birth), pay attention to the young mother’s ability to cope with change and new responsibilities. Check whether she has experienced postpartum blues and whether she has overcome them or is still feeling ‘down’. Observe the mother–baby interaction and breastfeeding (attachment, removal, positioning and style of feeding). Take a brief history focusing on progress in healing and involution; inspect her breasts, abdomen and perineum.
- During the sixth week visit take a complete history and make a thorough physical examination. Now is a good time to discuss future contraceptive needs with the young mother. Explore with her how she is coping with mothering and any physical, emotional and/or baby problems. Make sure the newborn gets its vaccination.
- You should be able to help her solve the common physical discomforts of postpartum recuperation and adjustment, such as increased perspiration, perineal pain, breast engorgement, constipation and haemorrhoids. Assure her that these are common problems and taking a soft diet will help; give her painkillers if she has pain.
- Make sure she is continuing her nutritional supplements, especially if breastfeeding.
- Give genuine praise for any and all accomplishments in caring for her baby.
- Encourage experienced caretakers (mother, grandmother, aunt) to work with the young mother, but they should not take over the direct care of the baby. Encourage supporters to remind the mother to drink fluids–something often forgotten by the new mother in her distraction and fatigue.
- Keep the lines of communication open and be available to the young mother as situations arise for which she will need your support or the support of other young mothers whom she may have met during her antenatal period.
11.4 Parenting and infant feeding
11.4.1 What young parents feel and need
For a young couple, childrearing presents many difficulties.
There is a high risk of infant morbidity and mortality which may be due to biological factors or to poor parental care.
The young couple may feel inadequate in caring for an infant and anxious about the baby’s health.
They may feel resentment or depression over their loss of leisure and the great increase in responsibility.
The infant care needed may prevent the parents from improving their economic and/or educational situation.
Isolation from peers, crowded living conditions and dependence on others, with consequent resentment, are additional hazards.
In Box 11.1 there is a summary of the needs of young mothers and fathers. Understanding helps you to improve your response to their needs through counselling and providing postnatal care services. It is good to engage the young father when visiting the young parents at home.
Box 11.1 What young parents need
| Fathers | Mothers |
|---|---|
| Acceptance and integration into pre- and postnatal services. | Postnatal support and healthcare for themselves and their infants. |
| Counselling about the benefits of sound sexual/reproductive health practices, including condom use. | Information about the importance of breastfeeding, immunization, nutrition and growth monitoring. |
| Encouragement to learn effective parenting skills, such as feeding, bathing, changing, playing, positive social interactions and participating in healthcare decisions. | Encouragement to learn effective parenting skills, such as feeding, bathing, changing, playing, positive social interactions, and making healthcare decisions. |
| Continued access to economic and educational opportunity. | Counselling about contraceptives to delay the next pregnancy. |
| A confidential, private, affordable and welcoming service environment. | |
| Continued access to economic and educational opportunity. |
11.4.2 Supporting young mothers to choose breastfeeding and succeed
There are many benefits of breastfeeding so it is worthwhile taking some time to counsel young mothers on breastfeeding.
What are the benefits of breastmilk?
Breastmilk is the perfect milk for a baby. The benefits of breastmilk are:
- It has all of the nutrients the baby needs.
- It is easy for the baby to digest.
- It gives the baby important protection from infections.
- It is always fresh, clean and ready to drink.
- It slows the mother’s bleeding after birth.
- It helps prevent the mother from getting pregnant again too soon.
- It does not cost money.
Breastfeeding is a particular challenge for young mothers, who often consider breastfeeding to be too confining of their movements and too demanding of their time. So it is your task to help maintain a realistic perspective that supports the young mother in making a decision that she is comfortable with and can successfully carry out. Help her achieve her identity and minimise role confusion as she negotiates between her personal development needs and her role as a mother. One way you can do this is by emphasising that she is the only one who can ‘mother’ her baby when she breastfeeds. Offer her a different perspective; rather than seeing breastfeeding as keeping her ‘tied down’, explain that she is doing something important that no one else can take over. Emphasise that breastfeeding is convenient and is rewarding to the mother. Provide breastfeeding guidance from the moment of delivery by giving practical suggestions to maximise the mother’s success and confidence. In addition, it is good that you do the following:
- Help her set realistic short-term goals, e.g. breastfeeding until she returns to school is better than not breastfeeding at all.
- Connect her with a peer breastfeeding support group. Mother-to-mother support relationships have been vital in helping the young mother successfully sustain optimal breastfeeding practices.
- Focus on body image in a positive way, e.g., breastfeeding can help her return to her pre-pregnant shape.
Summary of Study Session 11
In this session, you have learned that:
- Pregnancy for adolescents, especially under the age of 16, has many risks including obstructed and prolonged labour.
- You should educate and counsel pregnant adolescents on protecting themselves from malaria (sleeping under ITN), getting balanced and nutritious food, prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV (PMTCT), personal hygiene, taking adequate rest, breastfeeding, HTPs and danger symptoms during pregnancy
- You should use the FANC chart to provide an antenatal care service for young women.
- You should encourage young women to deliver at a health facility and help them to work with a supporter to develop a birth preparedness and complication readiness plan.
- While offering support to young women in labour you should be patient, understanding, compassionate and caring. You should ensure that they understand what is happening and what you are doing.
- Young mothers have the compound challenge of continuing to establish their own identity while they adjust to the role of being a mother.
- You should help the young mother successfully take on the role and responsibilities of mothering.
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 11
Now that you have completed this study session, you can assess how well you have achieved its Learning Outcomes by answering the questions below. Write your answers in your Study Diary and discuss them with your Tutor at the next Study Support Meeting. You can check your answers with the Notes on the Self-Assessment Questions at the end of this Module.
First read Case Study 11.1 and then answer the questions that follow it.
Case Study 11.1 Tsega’s pregnancy
Tsega is a newly married 18-year-old girl who has found that she is pregnant. She had wanted to continue her education so was unhappy about her pregnancy. However, the families are very happy for the young couple and Tsega has been in good health. You have made the four FANC visits and Tsega has a plan to deliver at your health post. A week after your fourth visit she developed labour pains and was brought to your health post, which is just a half-hour walk from Tsega’s home. Some people from her village brought her but her mother, who was her supporter, was not able to come with them. Tsega is now alone and is weeping.
SAQ 11.1 (tests Learning Outcomes 11.1 and 11.2)
Does Tsega have a high risk of obstructed labour? What evidence is there for your answer?
Answer
Tsega is not under 16 so her risk of obstructed labour is not especially high, although it is higher than it would be for an older woman. However, at 18 her pelvis might be immature so the birth canal could be restricted in size. On a positive note she has been in good health and both families are pleased she is pregnant so she may be well nourished.
SAQ 11.2 (tests Learning Outcomes 11.2 and 11.3)
What particular emotional needs might Tsega have during pregnancy and childbirth?
Answer
Tsega was not happy to be pregnant so she will have needed caring support during her pregnancy. At the health post she is weeping so she is probably missing her family and will need support through the labour from a skilled assistant. She should not be left alone to weep.
SAQ 11.3 (tests Learning Outcomes 11.2 and 11.3)
- a.You were not at the health post when Tsega was brought in but you arrived just before she gave birth to a healthy boy. After birth, for how long will you observe her at your facility and what will you advise her on before you send her home?
- b.When will you make home visits to see how she is doing and what will you do during each visit?
Answer
- a.You should observe her for six hours, explain the signs of postpartum complications to her and tell her when to return to the health care facility.
- b.You should schedule a home visit for follow-up on the 7th and 42nd days after birth. During the first week postpartum visit, congratulate her on her labour and if possible tell family members how well she managed. Then pay attention to her ability to cope with change and new responsibilities. Observe the mother–baby interaction and breastfeeding (attachment, removal, positioning and style of feeding). Take a brief history focusing on progress in healing and involution; inspect breasts, abdomen and perineum.
During the sixth week visit take a complete history and physical examination and discuss her contraceptive needs. Explore with her how she is coping with mothering and find out whether she has any physical, emotional and/or baby problems.
Notes for Activity 11.1
You should have used the principles of FANC to help you complete this table.
| First visit (when pregnancy is confirmed) | Second visit (4–6 months) | Third visit (8 months) | Fourth visit (9 months) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 Take a proper history | 1 Ask for and note any changes since last visit | 1 Ask for and note any changes since last visit | 1 Ask for and note any changes since last visit |
| 2 Counsel on danger signs and on: PMTCT breastfeeding hygiene nutrition sleeping under ITN HTP | 2 Counsel on danger signs and other issues as before and also on family planning | 2 Counsel as before | 2 Counsel as before |
| 3 Explain the need for 3 additional ANC visits | 3 Explain the need for 2 additional ANC visits | 3 Explain the need for 1 additional ANC visit | 3 Review birth plan |
| 4 Assist woman and family to develop a birth plan | 4 Review the birth plan | 4 Review the birth plan | 4 Check BP and examine woman to confirm fetal lie and presentation |
| 5 Check BP, weight and give physical examination | 5 Check BP and give a general and abdominal physical examination | 5 Check BP and give physical examination as before | 5 Treat malaria(if necessary) |
| 6 Give first dose of tetanus toxoid (TT) vaccine unless the mother’s TT is up to date | 6 Give second dose of TT vaccine | 6 Treat malaria (if necessary) | 6 Refer for further evaluation if BP is high, fetal movement is not felt or there is abnormal lie and presentation, there is suspicion of multiple pregnancy or if any sign of emergency is detected |
| 7 Provide iron supplement for 3 months | 7 Provide iron supplement for 3 months | 7 Refer for further evaluation if BP is high, fetal movement is not felt, there is suspicion of multiple pregnancy or any sign of emergency is detected | 7 Refer for any other services and management as appropriate |
| 8 Treat malaria (if necessary) | 8 Treat malaria (if necessary) | 8 Refer for any other services and management as appropriate | 8 Register the mother on ANC registry |
| 9 Refer for lab tests | 9 Refer for further evaluation if fetal movement is not felt or if any sign of emergency is detected | 9 Give schedule for fourth visit | |
| 10 Refer for any other services and management as appropriate | 10 Refer for any other services and management as appropriate | 10 Register the mother on ANC registry | |
| 11 Give schedule for second visit | 11 Give schedule for third visit | ||
| 12 Register the mother on ANC registry | 12 Register the mother on ANC registry |