2.1. How does policy-making work?

The policy-making process is supposed to be rational; it is usually presented as a logical flow between discrete phases (Figure 2).

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Figure 2 The policy-making cycle (Coventry University, n.d.).
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In a policy-making cycle, pressure for change (new problem(s)) leads to the following stages, in sequence: reviewing evidence and consulting experts, policy options, examining the health impact for each option, identifying any barriers to local implementation, stakeholder consultation, revising policy, implementing policy, and, finally, evaluating policy. This leads back to pressure for change.

Figure 2 The policy-making cycle (Coventry University, n.d.).

However, presenting the process in discrete phases is a naive view of policy-making. Some of the constituent parts of Figure 2 are necessary for making good policy, but suggesting that policy can be made through a series of logical, sequential steps, with a clear beginning and end within a finite period, is an over-simplification.

The stages of policy-making often overlap, and are frequently inseparable. The pressures of the real world of policy frequently lead to identifying a policy goal (‘new problem(s)’ in Figure 2), and options selected for action become fused together. Policy-makers will have multiple policy goals that often conflict and sometimes change. Additionally, they may enter and exit the policy process at different stages (IfG, 2011).

So although it is simplistic to suggest that there are natural ‘stages’ where anyone wanting to provide evidence for AMR policy can input evidence into the policy-making process, there are some natural entry points and some useful tips and techniques when working with policy-makers (NCCPE, n.d.) (Figure 3).

Here are some useful tips and techniques when working with policy-makers (adapted from Oliver and Cairney, 2019):

Your policy audience is likely to change

  • It can change annually, if not more frequently.
  • They have busy and constrained lives, and their own career concerns and pathways.
  • Do not guess what might work; take the time to listen and learn from policy colleagues.

Learn to recognise broader policy-making dynamics

  • Pay particular attention to changing policy priorities. Take the time to learn what, when, where and who to influence.
  • Get to know audiences. Learn about and maximise your use of established ways to engage, such as in advisory committees and expert panels.
  • Persistence and patience is advised: sticking at it, and changing your strategy if it is not working.

Become established as a ‘trusted voice’

  • This may take time and may require a commitment to remaining non-partisan.
  • Build routine engagement on authentic relationships, developing a genuine rapport by listening and responding.
  • Develop leadership and communication skills, but with reference to listening and learning.

Involve policy-makers as early as possible

  • This will help you develop shared interpretations of the policy problem and agreement on the purpose of research.
  • Co-designing or otherwise doing research-for-policy together is widely held to be morally, ethically and practically one of the best ways to get evidence into policy.

Engage with parliamentary disucssions

  • Follow parliamentary debates and discussions on social media, and participate in policy-relevant events organised by think tanks, political parties, etc. This will help you to understand who may need relevant and timely evidence.
  • Put yourself in the policy-maker’s shoes, empathising with their responsibility for decisions that may have serious consequences.

2 Understanding and identifying policy-makers

2.2 Identifying policy-makers