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...energies remained the same. Decreasing the wavelength of the light, however, caused the electrons to be emitted with a higher maximum energy. Conversely, increasing the wavelength of the light beyond a particular cut-off value (specific to each metal), caused the emission of electrons to cease. The explanation was that light interacts with matter as if it is composed of a...

...Solar System bodies from contamination by Earth life and protecting Earth from possible life forms that may be returned from other Solar System bodies.​ Approaches to this taken by space agencies and mission teams have changed over the 60 years of Mars exploration and will continue to adapt to new scientific understanding of the planet and of life itself. However, the...

...solar, stellar, or galactic... Identifying different types of galaxy Galaxies are categorised according to their apparent shape. These shapes are typically divided into elliptical, spiral or irregular. The shape of a galaxy gives a clue to the age and types of star within the galaxy. What happens when galaxies collide? Collisions between galaxies take hundreds of millions...

...Solar System, it is important that we do not accidentally contaminate untouched and unspoilt extraterrestrial environments in any way. In this free course you will learn about ‘Planetary Protection’ and why it is critical for our future exploration and use of space. This course has been developed with support from the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) Planetary...