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...carbon, sulfur, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen. These are likely to come from the ice interacting with the ocean below. Thanks to these missions and their discoveries, Europa is now a prime target for astrobiological research. Interestingly, the moon has a notable lack of craters and mountains, suggesting the surface is quite young and is regularly changing, similar to...

...carbon based materials used for fuel and in devices such as gas masks. However, she is better known for performing much of the pioneering X-ray crystallography that helped determine the structure of DNA. An X-ray photograph of DNA is shown in Figure 1b, and Figure 1d shows a model of its structure. In 1962 the determination of the structure of DNA using X-ray diffraction...

...carbon, each atom is covalently bonded to four other carbon atoms, arranged at the corners of a tetrahedron (Figure 16a). The resulting structure, which has a repeating cubic shape, is illustrated in Figure 16b. The structure contains much more unoccupied space than close-packed metal structures. Figure 16 The diamond structure: (a) the tetrahedral arrangement of covalent...