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...techniques were deployed by the Greek physician Galen. When he cut the laryngeal nerve of a squealing pig before an audience of Romans, he demonstrated that the pig continued struggling but the squealing suddenly stopped. Galen practiced in an era when standardised medical qualifications did not exist, and every doctor was only as good as his ability to persuade the...

...techniques. Nestle traces modern attempts to understand food and energy back to a French aristocrat and chemist named Antoine Lavoisier. In the early 1780s, Lavoisier developed a triple-walled metal canister large enough to house a guinea pig. Inside the walls was a layer of ice. Lavoisier knew how much energy was required to melt ice, so he could estimate the heat the...

...technique de Lecea helped pioneer. By deploying a virus, a promoter and a gene found in blue-green algae, it is possible to render a particular population of neurons sensitive to light. To illustrate this wizardry, de Lecea brings up a video on his laptop. There is a mouse in a cage that has been engineered so its orexin neurons will fire in response to light. There is a...

...technique he picked up in hospital. Martiny pulls up Peter’s data on his computer. It confirms the shift towards earlier sleep and wake times, and shows an improvement in the quality of his sleep, which is mirrored by his mood scores. Immediately after his release from hospital, these averaged around 6 out of 10. But after two weeks they’d risen to consistent 8s or...

...technique while they navigate through these changing body waters, perhaps the confidence to stay in sport would be there. But it isn’t just at puberty, it’s throughout our lifespan. So right now, we hear all these things about the Keto diet, high intensity interval training, paleo, intermittent fasting. Do all of these things. But where do we get this information?...