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...data on the composition of the minerals. For example, I use electron microscopes to look in detail at the textures of ice samples. I look at where different types of salts accumulate and how the minerals are distributed within the ice, because that might have implications for how much fluid is transported up through the ice or how much drains back down into the oceans of...

...analysis and the percentage of different elements can be worked out. But normally it is a combination of methods. There are more indirect routes that don’t look at the elements in the rocks themselves but measure them in the water of streams and rivers. The ‘concentration’ (amount per unit volume or mass) of metals that are found dissolved in stream and river water...