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...education, training opportunities or responsibilities for children. Institutional theories tend to focus more on explaining why there are some jobs in which workers suffer labour market disadvantage. These workers will have low productivity so will not necessarily be facing pay discrimination. Rather, the labour market disadvantages that these workers face are...

...education to the children of the poor, systemised this practise. By the nineteenth century, branding and marking were no longer widely acceptable as means of identification. While clothing persisted as a guide to social identity, more universal means of identification were sought. Passport systems were widely used throughout nineteenth century Europe and included security...

...technology to investigate situations which were previously inaccessible. Beyond gaining access to the physically hard-to-reach, we can now address many situations that were previously too fleeting, long-term, intimate or dispersed to investigate. Thirdly, some methods simply did not exist before recent technological advances: big data and networked social media data are...