8 Communication is power infused
While power imbalances are not always obvious, they are present on a micro level (interpersonal interactions) and on a macro level (for example the official languages of a nation). For intercultural communication, the choice of language in an interaction is one of the most obvious factors that can reflect power imbalances. The use of English as a lingua franca* gives an advantage to native speakers of English and to those who have access to English classes or learning resources that enable them to become proficient speakers. Not being fluent in the shared language used in an interaction makes it more difficult to communicate one’s stance and also makes it harder to understand the interlocutor’s (‘interlocutor’ is the technical term for someone who takes part in a conversation) stance.
* A lingua franca is a ‘bridge language’, or a ‘vehicle language’. It connects people who do not speak each other’s native tongue. English as a world language often functions as a lingua franca: If managers from China (first language Mandarin) and Brazil (first language Brazilian Portuguese) speak English with each other, then English becomes the lingua franca. If one of the managers from Brazil spoke Mandarin with managers from China, because he learned it in school, then Mandarin is not the lingua franca as it is the native tongue of one of the speakers.
Activity 9
Power imbalances in interactions are often more obvious in professional contexts. Professional hierarchies are enacted and enforced through language use, as well as through non-verbal communication. It is noticeable when an individual fails to adhere to these unspoken rules and norms.
In this next activity, you’ll study two scenarios for the same setting. One will focus on non-verbal communication, and one on verbal communication. See if you can recognise what the social hierarchy at hand might be, even though you know nothing about the backgrounds of the individuals in these examples.
Scenario 1: Non-verbal communication
The health sector is a professional context that everyone has first-hand experience with. People might not have medical knowledge or be employed at a doctor’s surgery or hospital, but the vast majority of people will spend time in these environments as a patient at least once in their life.
Imagine you are at a hospital ward and experience the scene below. You have an urgent question that you would like to ask a more senior doctor.
How do you identify them? Write your thoughts in the box below. Think about both non-verbal and verbal cues.
Now you have shared your thoughts, please click ‘answer’ to check your answer.
Answer
There are several factors that people might associate with senior staff. There are expectations around their clothing: depending on where you are in the world, the colour or style of a uniform reveals an individual’s profession and status within it. Studies show that uniforms have a great effect on individuals, as people tend to accept a diagnosis more readily or have less resistance to following instructions from someone in a uniform. You might also look for someone who is older, as you might think that this indicates more years of professional experience. People holding health professions are often stereotyped: many people expect women to be nurses, and men to be doctors. This can lead to people seeking to speak to a male member of staff instead of a female, even though gender does not reflect one’s professional status anymore. You might also look for behaviours: a senior doctor might be the one giving instructions to colleagues or explaining something to doctors with less experience. They will also be the ones that are not interrupted or disagreed with when making a suggestion.
Scenario 2: Verbal communication
Now, let’s imagine you are still in the hospital. You are visiting someone whose bed is by the window, and your back is facing the rest of the room. Two doctors enter the room, and you overhear the exchange in the transcript below.
Who is the more senior doctor – Stuart or Susan? Which part of the transcript gives it away? Write your thoughts in the box below.
Now you have shared your thoughts, please click ‘answer’ to check your answer.
Answer
At first glance, the question in line 1 could seem like a genuine information-seeking question, which would mean that Susan is either Stuart’s equal or has more expertise. However, it becomes clear at several points in the conversation that this is not the case. Firstly, in line 4, Susan gets defensive, showing that she understood the question to have the purpose of doubting her knowledge. Instead of defusing the situation, Stuart starts a joke at the expense of Susan that is continued until line 6. Susan’s reaction in line 11 shows that she is in fact waiting for the right response to the question by Stuart, entertaining or tolerating the joke at their expense.
These behaviours point to a professional relationship between a student and a teacher. Stuart’s more powerful position is enacted through questions that test the knowledge of the other doctor, and the joke Stuart makes at their expense.
If you think about your own workplace, this might seem familiar. Employees would not normally playfully ask their employer questions to test their knowledge, and such jokes might be more expected between co-workers of an equal rank who know each other very well.
Intercultural communication pays attention to how such power imbalances are enacted across cultures. Hierarchies might technically be the same in medical, classroom or business settings across the globe, but the behaviour through which such organisational structures are achieved can differ.