Introducing the Classical world

Course reviews

• 
  Kevin McCarthy 30 August 2026 9:07PM

  1 2 3 4 5

  Rating entered.

  This course provides an excellent foundation for the impressive set of 𝗢𝗽𝗲𝗻𝗟𝗲𝗮𝗿𝗻 courses that cover ancient Greek and Roman history. Indeed, this course may well have benefited from a “Taking it further” section as included within 𝗢𝗽𝗲𝗻𝗟𝗲𝗮𝗿𝗻 courses from this historical period, such as 𝙏𝙝𝙚 𝙢𝙖𝙣𝙮 𝙜𝙪𝙞𝙨𝙚𝙨 𝙤𝙛 𝙩𝙝𝙚 𝙚𝙢𝙥𝙚𝙧𝙤𝙧 𝘼𝙪𝙜𝙪𝙨𝙩𝙪𝙨; this would then allow students to plan their educational journey through them.
  
  The breadth of coverage of sources is clearly of great benefit in emphasising the need for cross-domain interpretation, evidential analysis, context judgement, the determination of scope, the interpretation of bias/perspective and the preference for ‘reliable’ primary sources. Given the last update date of 05/08/2019, one wonders if the section on 𝗠𝗼𝗱𝗲𝗿𝗻 𝘀𝗼𝘂𝗿𝗰𝗲𝘀 would require amendment to reflect the current implications of “hallucination” within AI generated sources.
  
  
  𝗠𝗶𝘀𝗰𝗲𝗹𝗹𝗮𝗻𝗲𝗼𝘂𝘀
  
  𝟮.𝟭 𝗔𝗻 𝗶𝗻𝗶𝘁𝗶𝗮𝗹 𝗲𝘅𝗽𝗹𝗼𝗿𝗮𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻 𝗔𝗰𝘁𝗶𝘃𝗶𝘁𝘆 𝟮 “𝗘𝘅𝗽𝗲𝗿𝗶𝗲𝗻𝗰𝗶𝗻𝗴 𝘁𝗵𝗲 𝗖𝗹𝗮𝘀𝘀𝗶𝗰𝗮𝗹 𝗪𝗼𝗿𝗹𝗱”
  
  “Figure 1 Plan of the streets of Rome overlaid with fragments of the Forma Urbis Marmorea showing the curia pompei next to the circular temple on the right. (Reproduced from Steinby, E.M. (ed.) (1993) Lexicon Topographicum Urbis Romae, vol.1, Figure 123a.)”
  …the shaded area only appears to cover a sub-set of the remaining fragments, for example:
  https://www.thiasos.eu/en/seminario-forma-urbis-severiana-novita-e-prospettive/
  https://romeguides.it/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/Forma-Urbis-1128x800.jpg
  
  𝟮.𝟮 𝗧𝗵𝗲 𝘂𝘀𝗲 𝗼𝗳 𝘀𝗼𝘂𝗿𝗰𝗲𝘀
  
  Figure 1: the description and alternative description are blank duplicates.
  
  𝟮.𝟯 𝗔𝗻𝗰𝗶𝗲𝗻𝘁 𝘀𝗼𝘂𝗿𝗰𝗲𝘀
  
  𝗔𝗿𝗰𝗵𝗮𝗲𝗼𝗹𝗼𝗴𝗶𝗰𝗮𝗹 𝗲𝘃𝗶𝗱𝗲𝗻𝗰𝗲
  
  “Many archaeologists assume that this reflects a corresponding decrease in the Athenian population”
  
  Anthony Snodgrass FBA, 𝘼𝙧𝙘𝙝𝙖𝙞𝙘 𝙂𝙧𝙚𝙚𝙘𝙚: 𝙏𝙝𝙚 𝘼𝙜𝙚 𝙤𝙛 𝙀𝙭𝙥𝙚𝙧𝙞𝙢𝙚𝙣𝙩 (1980) pp. 22-24
  https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Archaic_Greece/JVwWJAoUWRgC?hl=en&gbpv=1&printsec=frontcover
  
  “they say that society became more stratified, increasingly burying only the elite, so that evidence of these burials is the only thing which survives”
  
  …surely, Attica’s Phaleron sand pits cemetery contains over 1,500 skeletons, including a mass grave of roughly 80 individuals and dates from the 8th to the 5th centuries BCE, indicating that whilst the elite might indeed have recognisable graves the remainder were not necessarily limited to shallow graves that were open to the ravages of time?
  
  “Not a population decrease then, but a more prominent class system.”
  
  Popularized by Ian Morris in 𝘽𝙪𝙧𝙞𝙖𝙡 𝙖𝙣𝙙 𝘼𝙣𝙘𝙞𝙚𝙣𝙩 𝙎𝙤𝙘𝙞𝙚𝙩𝙮 (1987), e.g. pp. 9, this theory argues that the population did not shrink; rather, the right to a formal, archaeologically visible burial was restricted through a deliberate socio-political exclusion of the non-elite from formal burial spaces. Thus, there was a fundamental increase in the proportion of the population that was affected by class division in the first place. 𝗗𝗲𝗯𝘁 𝗯𝗼𝗻𝗱𝗮𝗴𝗲 resulted with the elite’s (the 𝙀𝙪𝙥𝙖𝙩𝙧𝙞𝙙𝙖𝙞) increasing consolidation of agricultural land, causing a form of serfdom and indeed actual slavery. A formal burial (𝙩𝙖𝙥𝙝𝙤𝙨) required the retention of citizenship and membership in the community.
  https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Burial_and_Ancient_Society/W8srL8lkARsC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Burial+and+Ancient+Society&printsec=frontcover
  
  𝗟𝗶𝘁𝗲𝗿𝗮𝘁𝘂𝗿𝗲
  
  “Furthermore, much Classical literature (especially in the earlier periods) was performed rather than read.”
  
  It is perhaps interesting to note that since the text was not recorded, performers called 𝙧𝙝𝙖𝙥𝙨𝙤𝙙𝙚𝙨 learned the Odyssey by listening to the generation before them.
  https://historythisweekpodcast.substack.com/p/did-homer-write-the-odyssey-was-he
  
  The preservation of the 𝘐𝘭𝘪𝘢𝘥 and the 𝘖𝘥𝘺𝘴𝘴𝘦𝘺 without the aid of writing is one of the greatest feats of human memory, but it was not guaranteed by exact word-for-word memorisation. Milman Parry and Albert Lord have shown that the oral tradition succeeded because it was a highly advanced linguistic system designed for real-time composition, not rigid memorisation.
  https://uva.theopenscholar.com/charles-mathewes/blog/parrylord-theory
  
  Homer's poetry survived because it was a 𝘭𝘪𝘷𝘪𝘯𝘨 𝘵𝘳𝘢𝘥𝘪𝘵𝘪𝘰𝘯 passed down by schools of professional bards (such as a clan in Chios who called themselves the 𝗛𝗼𝗺𝗲𝗿𝗶𝗱𝗮𝗲, or "descendants of Homer") who continually trained youth in the exact same rules, plots, and formulas.
  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeric_Question
  
  “So, you might ask who performed the epics of Homer, who listened to them, where these performances took place, who (if anyone) paid for them…”
  As Greek city states developed (6 BCE onwards) there would have been free public recitations as part of religious festivals; it was part of the state’s civic duty to entertain the populace. In addition, rhapsodes competed for massive cash prizes funded directly by the city's treasury or tax system (as detailed in Plato’s 𝘐𝘰𝘯.)
  https://academic.oup.com/book/11229/chapter-abstract/159748250
  
  “Is it contemporary society Homer is describing?”
  His poems are set in the 𝗠𝘆𝗰𝗲𝗻𝗮𝗲𝗮𝗻 𝗕𝗿𝗼𝗻𝘇𝗲 𝗔𝗴𝗲 (c. 1600–1100 BCE)—the era of grand palaces, golden masks, and powerful kings like Agamemnon. However, Homer himself lived centuries later, during the 𝗘𝗮𝗿𝗹𝘆 𝗜𝗿𝗼𝗻 𝗔𝗴𝗲 / 𝗔𝗿𝗰𝗵𝗮𝗶𝗰 𝗧𝗿𝗮𝗻𝘀𝗶𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻 (c. 750–700 BCE).
  
  “Was Homer part of the elite?”
  No, Homer (or the bards who created the poems) was likely not a member of the political or military elite. He was an artisan. The ancient tradition universally imagined Homer as a blind, wandering beggar-poet (𝘢𝘰𝘪𝘥𝘰𝘴). While this is likely a mythical construction, it underscores that the ancient Greeks themselves never viewed the creator of the epics as a wealthy aristocrat or a military general.
  https://theconversation.com/guide-to-the-classics-homers-iliad-80968
  
  “Was he influenced by what his audience wanted to hear?”
  Because oral poetry is performed live, the audience actively shaped every single line of the performance. An oral bard was an entertainer who adjusted his pacing, focus, and content based on the crowd's real-time reactions.
  
  “…most of the far fewer female voices we do hear are written down or even invented by men”
  There were highly celebrated female Greek poets and oral creators. In fact, ancient critics compiled a canon of "𝙉𝙞𝙣𝙚 𝙀𝙖𝙧𝙩𝙝𝙡𝙮 𝙈𝙪𝙨𝙚𝙨 "—nine revered historical women whose poetic mastery was viewed as equal to the mythical daughters of Zeus. In particular: Sappho of Lesbos (c. 630–570 BCE), Plato consider her as the "The Tenth Muse" to elevate alongside the Nine Immortal Muses of Greek Mythology; Corinna of Tanagra (Trad. 6th Century BCE); Praxilla of Sicyon (c. 450 BCE); Telesilla of Argos (c. 510 BCE); Erinna (c. 4th Century BCE); Anyte of Tegea (c. 300 BCE); Myrtis, Moero and Nossis.
  https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/play/m002grqk
  
  “…we only hear the voices of the literate”
  From an ancient Greek perspective, the 𝘯𝘢𝘵𝘶𝘳𝘦 of the language we read is fundamentally oral, not literate. When we read Homer, we are not reading a text composed in a quiet study by a lonely writer. We are reading a dynamic linguistic system forged by generations of illiterate people talking to one another. The rhythm, the repetition, and the folk memories embedded in the 𝘐𝘭𝘪𝘢𝘥 or the Odyssey are fossils of an entire communal culture, not just the thoughts of a single literate person.
  
  𝗛𝗶𝘀𝘁𝗼𝗿𝗶𝗼𝗴𝗿𝗮𝗽𝗵𝘆
  
  “𝗛𝗲𝗿𝗼𝗱𝗼𝘁𝘂𝘀, the first Greek historian to survive in bulk, is at the centre of an enormous debate: some scholars think that he simply made-up large chunks of his work, and no one thinks that everything he says can be taken as fact.”
  …refers to 𝙏𝙝𝙚 𝙃𝙞𝙨𝙩𝙤𝙧𝙞𝙚𝙨 (Book 7, Section 152), classical historians view it as a statement of his 𝗽𝗶𝗼𝗻𝗲𝗲𝗿𝗶𝗻𝗴 𝗺𝗲𝘁𝗵𝗼𝗱𝗼𝗹𝗼𝗴𝘆 and 𝗰𝗿𝗶𝘁𝗶𝗰𝗮𝗹 𝘀𝗰𝗲𝗽𝘁𝗶𝗰𝗶𝘀𝗺. Herodotus introduces this rule of thumb while discussing a highly controversial political scandal. He was addressing whether the Greek city-state of Argos had committed treason by actively inviting the Persians to invade Greece. Because the evidence was muddy and the rumours were politically weaponised, Herodotus chose to provide all accounts rather than censor them.
  
  Herodotus used this philosophy to achieve several goals:
  1) Preserving Collective Memory;
  2) Encouraging Reader Scepticism;
  3) Presenting Multi-Perspective Truths
  
  “So even in the fifth century BCE, history was as much about belief as about truth.”
  The 𝗢𝗽𝗲𝗻𝗟𝗲𝗮𝗿𝗻 course “𝙃𝙚𝙧𝙤𝙙𝙤𝙩𝙪𝙨 𝙖𝙣𝙙 𝙩𝙝𝙚 𝙞𝙣𝙫𝙚𝙣𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣 𝙤𝙛 𝙝𝙞𝙨𝙩𝙤𝙧𝙮” states “A sizable portion of the 𝙃𝙞𝙨𝙩𝙤𝙧𝙞𝙚𝙨 has since been confirmed by modern historians and archaeologists.”
  
  𝗗𝗼𝗰𝘂𝗺𝗲𝗻𝘁𝘀
  
  “Ancient texts such as Homer or Herodotus do occasionally survive as papyri, but more often they have survived as manuscripts through a process of repeated copying in antiquity, during the Middle Ages and later. The copying ensured their survival, but also created the possibility of errors during copying being incorporated, as well as providing an opportunity for copyists to ‘correct’ or clarify passages they either could not read or could not understand.”
  
  …it is indeed the case that Herodotus's original copy no long exists, however:
  
  1) 𝗧𝗵𝗲 𝗠𝗲𝗱𝗶𝗲𝘃𝗮𝗹 𝗠𝗮𝗻𝘂𝘀𝗰𝗿𝗶𝗽𝘁𝘀 (𝟭𝟬𝘁𝗵–𝟭𝟰𝘁𝗵 𝗖𝗲𝗻𝘁𝘂𝗿𝗶𝗲𝘀 𝗖𝗘): The complete text of Herodotus survives via a small family of master copies preserved by Byzantine monks (the Byzantine Empire spoke Greek, avoiding the need to translate between languages, beyond Herodotus’s usage of the Ionic rather than the closely related Attic dialect of Ancient Greek). The oldest complete copy is the 𝘾𝙤𝙙𝙚𝙭 𝙇𝙖𝙪𝙧𝙚𝙣𝙩𝙞𝙖𝙣𝙪𝙨 (𝘾𝙤𝙙𝙚𝙭 𝘼), dating to the 10th century CE, housed in Florence.
  
  2) 𝗧𝗵𝗲 𝗔𝗻𝗰𝗶𝗲𝗻𝘁 𝗣𝗮𝗽𝘆𝗿𝗶 𝗙𝗿𝗮𝗴𝗺𝗲𝗻𝘁𝘀 (𝟭𝘀𝘁–𝟯𝗿𝗱 𝗖𝗲𝗻𝘁𝘂𝗿𝗶𝗲𝘀 𝗖𝗘): Over 80 fragmentary scraps of The Histories have been excavated from the dry sands of Egypt, mostly from the 𝙊𝙭𝙮𝙧𝙝𝙮𝙣𝙘𝙝𝙪𝙨 Papyri collection. These scraps are over 𝟳𝟬𝟬 𝘆𝗲𝗮𝗿𝘀 𝗼𝗹𝗱𝗲𝗿 than the medieval manuscripts.
  
  3) When modern classicists compared the 2,000-year-old Egyptian papyri fragments to the 1,000-year-old medieval manuscripts, they found they 𝗺𝗮𝘁𝗰𝗵𝗲𝗱 𝗮𝗹𝗺𝗼𝘀𝘁 𝗽𝗲𝗿𝗳𝗲𝗰𝘁𝗹𝘆. This proved that medieval scribes were incredibly meticulous and did not alter the core text or lose massive fragments over the centuries. Yes, scribes copying text for 12 hours a day by candlelight made errors. In addition, if a copyist came across an obscure Persian title or an old geographical term in Herodotus's text, they might write a helpful explanatory note in the margin; this may itself be assumed to be a part of the original text.
  
  𝟮.𝟱 𝗕𝗼𝗼𝗸𝘀 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝘁𝗵𝗲 𝗶𝗻𝘁𝗲𝗿𝗻𝗲𝘁 𝗮𝘀 𝘀𝗼𝘂𝗿𝗰𝗲𝘀
  
  Clearly, since this course is derived from an OU course the expectation to have access to The Oxford Companion to Classical Civilization (OCCC), A Brief History of Ancient Greece (BHAG) and Rome in the Late Republic (Beard and Crawford) was not assumed, requiring the provision of extracts.
  
  𝟯.𝟭 𝗔𝗻𝗰𝗶𝗲𝗻𝘁 𝘁𝗶𝗺𝗲
  
  𝗔𝗰𝘁𝗶𝘃𝗶𝘁𝘆 𝟱
  
  Modern style guides (like the 𝘖𝘹𝘧𝘰𝘳𝘥 𝘎𝘶𝘪𝘥𝘦 𝘵𝘰 𝘚𝘵𝘺𝘭𝘦 𝘰𝘳 𝘊𝘩𝘪𝘤𝘢𝘨𝘰 𝘔𝘢𝘯𝘶𝘢𝘭 𝘰𝘧 𝘚𝘵𝘺𝘭𝘦) strongly recommend spelling out BCE date ranges in full (e.g., 480–479 BCE) to avoid accidental time travel.
  
  “900–800 BCE Homer active. Greek alphabet created from Phoenician models.”
  While some older traditions placed Homer in the 9th century BCE, modern consensus dates Homer's activity and the creation of the Greek alphabet closer to 𝗰. 𝟳𝟱𝟬–𝟳𝟬𝟬 𝗕𝗖𝗘 (8th century BCE).
  
  “509 BCE Founding of the Roman Republic.”
  This is the 𝘵𝘳𝘢𝘥𝘪𝘵𝘪𝘰𝘯𝘢𝘭 date recorded by Roman historians (like Livy), but modern historians note it is highly mythologised.
  
  “300–100 BCE Alexandria is prominent centre of learning in the Greek world.”
  Alexandria remained a premier intellectual hub long after 100 BCE, continuing through the Roman Empire up until late antiquity (around the 4th to 5th centuries CE).
  
  “CE 69 Civil war: ‘the year of the four emperors’ ends with Vespasian victorious.”
  The civil war actually 𝘴𝘵𝘢𝘳𝘵𝘦𝘥 in CE 68 following Nero's suicide, though CE 69 is when the remaining three emperors cycled through power until Vespasian stabilized the empire.
  
  In addition: a timeline might need to consider the 𝗣𝗲𝗻𝘁𝗲𝗸𝗼𝗻𝘁𝗮𝗲𝘁𝗶𝗮: 𝗛𝗶𝘀𝘁𝗼𝗿𝘆’𝘀 𝟱𝟬-𝗬𝗲𝗮𝗿 "𝗕𝗹𝗮𝗰𝗸 𝗛𝗼𝗹𝗲". The primary source for this era is the famous Greek historian 𝗧𝗵𝘂𝗰𝘆𝗱𝗶𝗱𝗲𝘀. While he was a brilliant historian, he had a habit that drives modern chronologists mad: 𝗵𝗲 𝗿𝗮𝗿𝗲𝗹𝘆 𝗿𝗲𝗰𝗼𝗿𝗱𝗲𝗱 𝗲𝘅𝗮𝗰𝘁 𝘆𝗲𝗮𝗿𝘀.
  
  𝗔𝗰𝘁𝗶𝘃𝗶𝘁𝘆 𝟲 𝗣𝗲𝗼𝗽𝗹𝗲, 𝘄𝗼𝗿𝗹𝗱𝘀 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝘁𝗶𝗺𝗲
  
  “Classical Studies, as an academic subject, has chosen boundaries for itself. Anything before 814 BC, the date of the earliest ‘reliable’ historical date in the area around the Mediterranean Sea, is a part of prehistory”
  
  814 BCE can be treated as an early chronological marker for the wider ancient Mediterranean or Archaic period, however, the Classical period in the narrower historical sense begins around 500 BCE, not with Carthage’s foundation? Indeed, “𝗧𝗮𝗯𝗹𝗲 𝟭.𝟭 𝗧𝗮𝗯𝗹𝗲 𝗼𝗳 𝗽𝗲𝗿𝗶𝗼𝗱𝘀” states that the Archaic period commenced c. 900 BCE and the Classical Period c. 530 BCE.
  
  Scholars use different boundaries:
  • Broad Classical Studies: roughly the eighth century BCE to late antiquity.
  • Archaic Greek period: approximately 800–500 BCE.
  • Classical Greek period: often approximately 500–323 BCE, or more narrowly 480–323 BCE.
  
  “The ancient Romans had a similar system, which used the traditional date of the founding of the city of Rome, 753 BCE, as a year zero.”
  Since Roman numerals had no year zero, strictly 753 BCE = 1 AUC, 1 BCE = 753 AUC, 1 CE = 754 AUC…
  
  “Herodotus (484–430 BCE) describes the Heraclid dynasty in Lydia as reigning for 22 generations, equating this to a period of 505 years, and so giving an average life of nearly 23 years to each generation”
  …in Herodotus’s dynastic context, “generation” may not mean a precisely measured parent-to-child interval. It could represent a succession in a royal lineage. A king might be succeeded by:
  • a son aged 20;
  • a younger brother;
  • a nephew;
  • a grandson;
  • or another dynastic relative.
  Thus, the calculation says that the dynasty contains roughly one generational step every 23 years, but it does not establish that each king fathered his successor at age 23, nor that the rulers themselves reigned for 23 years. It is best understood as an approximate chronological average.
  
  𝗔𝗰𝘁𝗶𝘃𝗶𝘁𝘆 𝟴 𝗗𝗶𝘀𝗰𝘂𝘀𝘀𝗶𝗼𝗻
  
  “Our sources are weak here, but it is doubtful that, to them, 479 BCE was the boundary of two periods.”
  Persia had not been conquered or destroyed:
  • The Achaemenid Empire remained powerful for another 150 years.
  • Xerxes continued ruling until 465 BCE.
  • Persia retained control over much of the eastern Aegean and the Greek cities of Asia Minor.
  • Persian influence remained important in Greek politics, diplomacy, and warfare.
  From a Persian perspective, the campaign was likely understood less as the end of an age and more as a failed expedition or temporary setback. Persian imperial history would more naturally be divided by events such as:
  • the accession or death of a king;
  • rebellions within the empire;
  • dynastic succession crises;
  • administrative or territorial changes;
  • major conflicts with Egypt, Babylon, or other imperial regions.
  
  𝟯.𝟮 𝗔𝗻𝗰𝗶𝗲𝗻𝘁 𝗽𝗹𝗮𝗰𝗲𝘀
  
  “…in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, rather detailed descriptions of the earth's surface, including the concept of latitude and longitude, were developed in order to fix places in geographical space”
  
  This is correct if “the concept of longitude” means a coordinate system for representing east–west position. However, in the absence of a 18th century CE chronometer, ancient geographers could only define and calculate longitude in principle without being able to measure it accurately in practice.
  
  Ptolemy, in the second century CE, produced a major catalogue of places with latitude and longitude. His system was mathematically sophisticated, but many of the actual longitudes were inaccurate because they were based on estimated distances and reports rather than precise simultaneous time measurements.
  
  𝗧𝗵𝗲 𝗴𝗲𝗼𝗴𝗿𝗮𝗽𝗵𝘆 𝗼𝗳 𝘁𝗵𝗲 𝗖𝗹𝗮𝘀𝘀𝗶𝗰𝗮𝗹 𝘄𝗼𝗿𝗹𝗱
  
  𝗔𝗰𝘁𝗶𝘃𝗶𝘁𝘆 𝟵
  
  𝗠𝗮𝗽𝘀 𝟭 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝟮
  
  The 𝗥𝗶𝘃𝗲𝗿 𝗘𝘂𝗿𝘆𝗺𝗲𝗱𝗼𝗻 is missing a grid reference (Map 2 Bc), also the river itself is not shown on the respective map. Presumably it was by coincidence that the OCCC cartography contained an error for this selected river?
  https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/638836
  The Eurymedon is now the Köprüçay River:
  https://mapy.com/en/turisticka?source=osm&id=139686813&x=31.1896813&y=37.2149669&z=9
  
  𝗠𝗮𝗽 𝟯
  
  Neapolis has reference 𝗕𝗰, rather than 𝗕𝗯.
  
  𝗥𝗲𝗳𝗲𝗿𝗲𝗻𝗰𝗲𝘀
  
  𝗧𝗵𝗲 𝗰𝗼𝘂𝗿𝘀𝗲 𝘀𝘁𝗮𝘁𝗲𝘀 “…and then a bibliography at the back, gathering the various items referred to.”, there would thus appear to be a lack of references, e.g., taking just one focus area:
  Snodgrass, A.M. (1971) 𝘛𝘩𝘦 𝘋𝘢𝘳𝘬 𝘈𝘨𝘦 𝘰𝘧 𝘎𝘳𝘦𝘦𝘤𝘦: 𝘢𝘯 𝘢𝘳𝘤𝘩𝘢𝘦𝘰𝘭𝘰𝘨𝘪𝘤𝘢𝘭 𝘴𝘶𝘳𝘷𝘦𝘺 𝘰𝘧 𝘵𝘩𝘦 𝘦𝘭𝘦𝘷𝘦𝘯𝘵𝘩 𝘵𝘰 𝘵𝘩𝘦 𝘦𝘪𝘨𝘩𝘵𝘩 𝘤𝘦𝘯𝘵𝘶𝘳𝘪𝘦𝘴 𝘉𝘊. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
  Snodgrass, A.M. (1980) 𝘈𝘳𝘤𝘩𝘢𝘪𝘤 𝘎𝘳𝘦𝘦𝘤𝘦: 𝘵𝘩𝘦 𝘢𝘨𝘦 𝘰𝘧 𝘦𝘹𝘱𝘦𝘳𝘪𝘮𝘦𝘯𝘵. London: J.M. Dent & Sons.
  Morris, I. (1987) 𝘉𝘶𝘳𝘪𝘢𝘭 𝘢𝘯𝘥 𝘢𝘯𝘤𝘪𝘦𝘯𝘵 𝘴𝘰𝘤𝘪𝘦𝘵𝘺: 𝘵𝘩𝘦 𝘳𝘪𝘴𝘦 𝘰𝘧 𝘵𝘩𝘦 𝘎𝘳𝘦𝘦𝘬 𝘤𝘪𝘵𝘺-𝘴𝘵𝘢𝘵𝘦. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

  Flag As Offensive
• 
  Carolyn Bettesworth 27 August 2026 12:22PM

  1 2 3 4 5

  Rating entered.

  I enjoyed the course and feel a great deal more informed about dates, places and certain important figures. It has begun to create a clearer picture in my mind but it also has demonstrated just how massive and complex a subject this is and I think I would like to have some suggestions about where to go next. I enjoyed the excerpts, photographs and maps. They all helped to bring the ideas in the text discussion to life. I feel I could go back to the beginning and read it all again!

  Flag As Offensive