"Incarceration and family separation can therefore lead to intergenerational cycles of trauma, incarceration, and family separation,"

(Sherwood and Kendall, 2013, p91).

This research explores the needs of women in the UK prison system who are also mothers, focusing on the potential of service and co-design methods to improve parenting education and support. Despite evidence that parental imprisonment is a significant risk factor for negative long-term outcomes in children, there is limited understanding of how best to deliver effective parenting services for this group. It adopts a life course approach, emphasising the importance of combining parenting education with other support services to mitigate adverse effects. It highlights the value of service co-design, where beneficiaries and practitioners collaborate to create more effective, empowering, and sustainable programmes.

The review finds that while parenting education can improve psychosocial outcomes and reduce recidivism, there is a lack of research on the most effective delivery models, especially for economically disadvantaged, marginalised, or underserved populations. The research also discusses the challenges of maintaining fidelity and effectiveness in programme design, advocating for adaptable frameworks and participatory methods. Four research questions guide the studies, addressing evidence gaps, outcomes, theories of change, and implications for future research and policy. The work to date calls for more targeted, co-designed services to support mothers in the criminal justice system and improve outcomes for their children.

The Studies

This research is mixed methods and includes the following studies:

• Study 1 Scoping Review (2022-2023) 
•  Study 2 Focus Groups (2025) 
• Study 3 Interviews (current 2026)
• Study 4 Survey (2027)
• Study 5 Systematic Review (or alternative 2027) 

Studies 2 - 4 Utilised prototyping (Research through Design).

Emerging results of study 1

The results of the scoping review (Study 1) show a significant knowledge gap in the use of service and co-design methods for parenting education with mothers who have experienced the criminal justice system. Only a handful of studies (n = 5) directly address these approaches, indicating the need for further systematic reviews and primary research. Key themes identified include the importance of peer support, attachment-informed practice, gender-responsiveness, trauma-informed approaches, and empowerment. Peer support is seen as a crucial enabler for positive outcomes, though it can also present challenges if not managed well. Attachment theory is frequently referenced, underlining the importance of mother-child bonds. Gender-responsive and trauma-informed practices are essential for addressing the unique needs of this population, with specific assessment tools recommended for future research. Empowerment is highlighted as both a goal and an outcome of effective interventions. Quantitative findings show diverse outcomes, with positive effects on parenting behaviour and knowledge, and evidence suggesting a strong return on investment for such programmes. The was also a limited use of theories of change in programme design which calls for improved acceptability, accessibility, and coordination of services.

Work in progress conclusions

“I had the support and I was channelled in the right direction. It made me a better mother. It made me a happier mother. It made my daughter a happier child. If it's just the hope, it starts with hope.” 

Participant Focus Groups (Study 2).

This on-going research to date highlights the urgent need for targeted, co-designed parenting interventions for mothers in the UK prison system. By adopting service and co-design methods, programmes can become more responsive, empowering, and sustainable, addressing the unique challenges faced by this marginalised group. The evidence underscores the importance of peer support, attachment-informed, gender-responsive, and trauma-informed approaches to improve outcomes for both mothers and their children. However, significant gaps remain in delivery models and theoretical frameworks. Future research and policy must prioritise participatory, adaptable solutions to break cycles of disadvantage and foster positive change.

"Any service re-design must place the women and her children at the centre of the service." 

(Breuer, 2021, p1).