A person who shoes horses.

An oath sworn to one’s lord promising faithful service as part of an act of homage.

Feargus O'Connor was a leading Chartist, who founded the Chartist newspaper, The Northern Star in 1837, and advocated the peasant ownership of land.

An association of Liberals. In the late nineteenth century north and south Wales were grouped in separate Liberal federations.

See South Wales Miners' Federation.

Dues owed to a lord of the manor by his tenants.

A social structure and system of land tenure based on the equation of landholding with military responsibility. The king granted land to his tenants-in-chief in return for military service and they infeudated their knights and retainers, while the actual farm work would be done by unfree labourers in return for the use of some land for themselves.

Mountain pastures or sheep walks.

Land held in return for homage and services (normally military).

A tax of foodstuffs upon a community for the maintenance of the court or one of its officers.

A full, legally recognised right, for example that pertaining to burgesses within a medieval borough.

One of the great mendicant orders of friars. Founded by St Francis (1226) who provided inspiration for other mendicant orders in his stress on members having the absolute minimum of personal possessions so the friars could preach to the poorest and humblest.

The free churches were the nonconformist denominations. See Nonconformity.

A person who owned land free of feudal services or rent.

Landowners; freeholders with property worth more than 40 shillings a year had the parliamentary vote in county constituencies.

Fraternity or secret society, originating in the medieval guilds of stonemasons.

Formed in 1963, a paramilitary organisation of limited membership with the aim of achieving independence for Wales.

During the French Revolutionary Wars, 1,400 French landed near Fishguard hoping to march on London. The invasion was half-hearted, and troops allegedly surrendered in the belief that local women wearing tall black hats and red shawl were British troops.

Revolution beginning with the fall of the Bastille in 1789. It introduced democracy and abolished monarchy.

Associations of workers who combined mainly for the purpose of providing insurance benefits of various kinds as opposed to being involved in overtly political action.

(1784–1877). From Newport, Monmouthshire. Became a successful local businessman and Newport magistrate, although he supported the Chartist movement (see Chartism). In 1839 he was a leader of the Chartist march to Newport (see Newport Rising), as a result of which he was tried for treason. After conviction, his death sentence was commuted to transportation for life, and he was sent to Tasmania. In 1856 he was pardoned, and returned to Britain to live in Bristol, where he continued to advocate parliamentary reform until his death in 1877.