Medieval art
The Middle Ages in Europe experienced significant demographic fluctuations, notably a decline in prosperity and population until around 800 AD, followed by a gradual increase leading to the tumultuous impact of the Black Death around 1350, which killed approximately one-third of Europe's population. From a low of about 18 million in 650, the population doubled by 1000 and exceeded 70 million by 1340, just before the plague, but was only 50 million by 1450. Northern Europe, particularly Britain, contributed less to this growth than Southern Europe, including France. Despite the massive population loss due to the pandemic, the survivors experienced limited effects on their prosperity. Agricultural labor was scarce until the 11th century, with substantial amounts of untapped land, and the Medieval Warm Period, until about 1315, was advantageous for agriculture.
Medieval art
The medieval period was marked by transformative changes, particularly after the decline of external invasions that characterized earlier centuries. The Islamic conquests of the 6th and 7th centuries notably detached North Africa from Western influences, contributing to the rise of Islamic power over the Byzantine Empire. By the end of the Middle Ages, although Catholic nations had reclaimed parts of the Iberian Peninsula, they faced new threats from Muslim powers to the southeast.
In the early medieval era, artistic production was limited and primarily associated with the secular elite, monasteries, or significant religious institutions. Most art created during this time was religious, largely produced by monks. However, a significant transformation occurred toward the late Middle Ages, as artistic endeavors began to reach small villages and middle-class households, indicating the emergence of a local art production industry. The role of clergy diminished as the primary creators of art, with many monks engaging in commercial production, including secular art, and monasteries occasionally hiring secular artisans for their expertise.
While surviving artworks suggest that medieval art was predominantly religious, this impression can be misleading. Although the church amassed wealth and sometimes invested in art, a considerable amount of secular art exists, often goes unrecognized due to its vulnerability to decay and destruction. During this period, there was little focus on preserving art for its intrinsic value; instead, it was largely conserved for its religious significance relating to saints or founders. Later periods, particularly the Renaissance and Baroque, frequently regarded medieval art as inferior. Additionally, many richly adorned illuminated manuscripts from the Early Middle Ages featured luxurious bindings made from precious materials such as metal, ivory, and jewels. Unfortunately, most complete manuscript covers have been lost, stripped for their valuable components, while remnants of pages and relief art have survived more robustly.
Most churches from the medieval period, particularly in England, remain well-preserved, with a significant number available, such as the 40 medieval churches in Norwich. In contrast, royal palaces have not survived, with none dating before the 11th century and only a few remnants existing from later periods. This trend is prevalent across Europe, though notable exceptions like the 14th century Palais des Papes in Avignon remain intact. The rarity of secular works creates ongoing scholarly disputes over their date and origin, exemplified by the British Museum's rejection of the Anglo-Saxon Fuller Brooch as a fake. Medieval art frequently utilized valuable materials, with expenditures on these materials often surpassing artist payments. Gold adorned church and palace objects, personal jewelry, and served purposes in mosaics and manuscripts. Artists also anticipated the future monetary value of high-value materials, with real estate typically being the safer investment until late in the period. Surviving artifacts such as ivory panels and manuscript pages are relatively numerous, as recycling options for thin ivory were limited and manuscripts could be repurposed.
The cost of basic materials was high; for instance, the production of three copies of the Bible at Monkwearmouth-Jarrow Abbey required the breeding of 1,600 calves for vellum. Despite the introduction of paper late in the Middle Ages, its high cost led to the production of small woodcuts for pilgrims. Advances in dendrochronology have revealed that much of the oak used in 15th-century Early Netherlandish paintings originated in Poland, highlighting trade routes that contributed to the supply of artistic materials. The study of medieval art encompasses various phases, styles, and periods, lacking clear chronological beginnings or endings, and varying significantly across different regions.